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Why does a sleeping mind disguise dreams and what is the difference between manifest and latent content, according to Freud? What is the function of dreams and what did Freud mean when he said that dreams were “the royal road to knowledge of the unconscious?” According to Adler, what is...
Is it true that microwaving food removes some nutritional value? We’ve all heard about how microwaving food removes some nutritional value but is it true? Is something bad happening to our food behind that microwave glass? As a renowned Food chemist of the country, you are invited by media men...
This can be a small scale problem, such as reducing procrastination, or a large scale problem, such as responding to the threat of climate change. After identifying the problem, develop a plan (or intervention) that could help to resolve the problem through either habit formation or self-directed learning. Research both...
Choose and analyse recently published research on a current topic in evolutionary biology. For your assignment, choose one paper and write a summary and evaluation of it. Your essay should include a summary and explanation in your own words of the paper’s content and major points, including the main question,...
How does water contamination affect freshwater fish (salmon)? Write a 275-word science proposal in APA style on the topic of how water contamination affects freshwater fish (salmon). Properly reference your ideas and present the issue from different perspectives. Make sure your proposal contains an appropriate hypothesis and rationale and includes...
Watch the documentary “Becoming Human,” part one, “First Steps.” While watching the documentary, answer the following questions in complete sentences. When were Selem’s fossils dated? How was this determined? What is Selem’s scientific name? What was the environment of the Suguta Valley 3 million years ago? Why did bipedalism evolve?...
What are the characteristics of the pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa? What individuals are at risk of the pathogen? What are its transmission mechanism/s and methods of prevention? Describe the clinical symptoms and progression of the disease. What are its diagnostic procedures and clinical treatment? Which cells and tissues does it affect?...
What is the role of hormones in the body? What is the name of the stimulating hormone that causes your chosen hormone to be secreted? What type of hormone is it? Where is the receptor for the chosen hormone located, and where in the cell of the organ is the...
Embryonic cells undergo active division and differentiation, especially in the blastula stage. In general, somatic cells in humans are divided continuously by mitosis — so the body is guaranteed the regeneration of skin cells, muscles, internal tissues. Sex cells (spermatozoa and eggs) are not formed as a result of mitosis...
Below are the four phases of mitosis. Prophase — spiralization of chromosomes, dissolution of the nuclear membrane, proteins begin to form a fission spindle. Metaphase — location of chromosomes in the center of the cell. Anaphase — the threads of fission spindle pull chromosomes to the poles, tearing them apart...
The figure unambiguously displays the essence of the processes in cells during the interphase and mitotic division. One can see that the interphase period is characterized by visible stability and the absence of any noticeable processes in the cytoplasm. With the onset of mitosis, prophase, the nucleus undergoes destruction, and...
The presented cell cycle shows different phases of the cell’s existence: everything starts with the formation, stage G1 when the newly appeared cell actively increases the strength and proteins. Stage S is the active zone of DNA replication, in which the doubling of genetic molecules with the purpose of subsequent...
Mitosis is indeed a continuous process, if only because the cut of the onion’s root under a microscope empirically demonstrated that all phases are present in the sample of cells. Thus, in some areas of the sample, it is possible to find both interphase and all mitosis phases. Continuity of...
According to Gram, Gram-positive microorganisms are colored in purple and Gram-negative microorganisms are colored in pale reddish-pink. The key difference is the structure of the cell wall, which either promotes or prevents the dye’s penetration into the inner content of the microorganism. Gram-negative cells have an outer layer, so they...
Global change can be defined as the possible changes which can take place within the worldwide environment, and those changes can adversely interfere with the Earth’s capacity to support life. Some of the global changes which may impact the ecosystem structure and function include changes in global climate by injection...
The hierarchy in ecology is important in the sense that it assists in the understanding of the population of different organisms which are present in a particular habitat in the ecosystem. Moreover, the nature of the ecosystem is also evaluated through the hierarchy of scales of space, time, and organizational...
There are several environmental factors that influence geographic variation in decomposition rates. At the geographic scale, the temperature in various locations is a critical determinant of rates of decomposition. This is just one element of climate which is responsible for the decomposition rate at the geographic level. In addition, pressure...
One of the most controversial aspects of the GMO debate is whether this biotechnology is capable of meeting the food needs of a growing global population. Due to a rise in the number of people on the planet food availability became a great concern. In order to address this problem,...
The religious views regarding the use of GMOs vary as there are many faiths. For instance, Smith notes that “the oldest and biggest Christian denomination has sent mixed messages on GMOs in the past few years”. For instance, some believe that selling genetically modified food is wrong since there are...
The question of using GMOs remains one of the most important problems of the 21st century. First of all, it raises the eternal issue of whether the achievements of science are beneficial to the planet. Currently, there is an active discussion in many countries on whether to label market products...
Gram stain is an important diagnostic feature and correlates with many properties of bacteria. According to their ability to stain with dyes of the trimethylphenol series, all bacteria are divided into two groups: gram-positive and gram-negative. Gram-positive bacteria retain the complex of gentian violet with iodine when the drug is...
The most important factor is the parent material that forms the soil sample. For instance, the bedrock and the layer above it determine the mineral content of the soil formed. If the bottom layer is too hard, it may take a considerably long period of time for weathering process to...
The fire suppression in Wisconsin prairie remnants revealed that the native species were increased to some extent. The dry prairies have also witnessed the development of species that are exotic in nature. There was also a 10 percent decline in the indigenous species. Sites that were under no management at...
In an equilibrium perspective to disturbance, there may be some patchy growth that tends to balance with the effect of the disturbance itself fairly. However, a non-equilibrium perspective has it that the impact left by the individual disturbances may be excessive and hard to strike a balance. Besides, a non-equilibrium...
A typical soil sample has quite a number of components that play different roles altogether. To begin with, the mineral matter which is derived from the lower horizons of soil determines the mineral content of a given soil sample. Another component is water which is equally necessary for supporting the...
Soil texture has several influences on the other properties of soil. To begin with, the drainage pattern of soil is directly determined by the texture of the soil under consideration. Sandy soil drains water more freely than clay soil. In addition, the water holding capacity of soils is a function...
There are distinct layers that make up any given soil sample in a natural habitat. These layers lie on each other, and they are also in a parallel position to the surface of the soil. A soil horizon then refers to each of these unique layers. When these layers are...
Soil erosion leads to massive land loss, which cannot be replenished within a short time. We should be concerned with the challenges caused by soil erosion because it takes an infinitely long period of time for a small later of soil to be formed. Some of the off-site negative impacts...
Nitrogen can be input into the ecosystem through the processes of lightning and precipitation. The amount of nitrogen injected into the atmosphere by the precipitation process is largely dependent on the geographical position of a place. Another way through which nitrogen can be added into the ecosystem is through a...
The abiotic situation is developed from a community situation in primary succession, which may take up to 500 years. There must be some form of a disturbance called cataclysmic for primary succession to take place. In some instances, the soil sample may eliminate the prevailing disturbance. Hence, the soil formation...
Disturbances will affect the ecosystem in a variety of ways. For example, some disturbances may disrupt, endanger or even kill some species in the ecosystem. The biotic interactions of the species in the system are also interfered with whenever disturbance prevails. Disturbance regime refers to a situation whereby there is...
One of the ways through which humans can perturb the nitrogen cycle is through the process of combustion or burning of fossil fuels that contain nitrogen compounds. The content of nitrogen in these fuels, as well as the temperature of combustion, determines how much of the gas is released into...
Global change can be defined as the possible changes which can take place within the worldwide environment, and those changes can adversely interfere with the Earth’s capacity to support life. Some of the global changes which may impact the ecosystem structure and function include changes in global climate by injection...
Shade intolerant among the pant community is common during the early succession. Besides, plants will grow a bit faster in early succession compared to late succession. There are a few seed development in plants in late succession, and climax species exist as well in late succession, while early succession is...
In the facilitation model, the physical environment undergoes some form of modification due to the action of the pioneering species. This occurs so that the late succession can colonize the regime. In the tolerance model, the physical environment also affects or drives the successional changes which are caused by each...
Most of the carbon dioxide found in the air is the same amount, which is transmitted in living organisms. The atmospheric composition of carbon dioxide is about 0.03moles in terms of percentage. Nevertheless, atmospheric carbon dioxide is not the main natural reservoir of this gas. The main reservoir is, however,...
Nitrogen fixation is a process through which the elemental nitrogen found in the atmosphere is converted into various compounds of nitrogen like ammonia by natural or artificial processes. Certain microorganisms in the soil can also fix or convert nitrogen into useful compounds, which can be easily assimilated by other plants...
The main function of carbon dioxide in plants is the manufacture of food substances. In the case of the increased amount of this gas into the atmosphere, it is definitely expected that plants will synthesize a lot of nutrients for themselves, leading to increased plant growth. High CO2 levels will...
Some of the major fluxes of the carbon cycle include the atmosphere, the production of cement and fossil fuels, vegetation, soils, and both surface and sub-farce ocean. The atmospheric carbon dioxide is utilized by plants in the natural ecosystem to manufacture their own food, while animals release carbon dioxide into...
The recent trends in atmospheric concentration reveal that this greenhouse has level has been steadily increasing with time. For instance, the concentration of CO2 has been rising at a margin of 1.5ppm annually since 1970 up to the advent of the new millennium, although this annual rise in carbon dioxide...
The carbon dioxide which sinks into the ocean reacts with water to form a weak carbonic acid which contains about 1 percent of the carbon in the entire system. The weak carbonic acid is then converted into a bicarbonate ion which exists in equilibrium with the acid formed depending on...
Some of the most important macronutrients required by plants and animals include magnesium, iron, calcium, phosphorus, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and potassium. On the other hand, micronutrients include sodium, manganese, zinc, cobalt, boron, copper, and chlorine. The main difference between these two categories is that macronutrients are required in...
Nutrients that are relevant for plant growth are usually supplied in vitro. The type of culture medium used determines how successful a certain plant propagation technique used will be. In any case, plants are known to grow strong and vigorous when elemental nutrients are absorbed directly from the soil. These...
Through transpiration water flow, plants are capable of lowering tissue and cell temperature, which have been occasioned by intense heating of the environment. The very plants absorb water from the soil, which not only supports their life but also assists in the process of the water cycle. When plants are...
The two most important cycles linked to the hydrologic cycle are the nitrogen and carbon cycles. Nitrogenous nutrients can only be absorbed by plants when in a soluble form. It is through the hydrologic cycle in plants (transpiration) that these nitrogenous nutrients from soil can be absorbed. The formation of...
The biosphere is the region on the earth’s surface that supports all plant and animal life. In other words, most living things reside in the biosphere. As a result, the consumption of water and energy by the living species is rather high at any given time, which leads to very...
Nutrient cycling cannot be possible without some source of energy that drives the system. For instance, nitrogen fixation in soils by lightning may not be possible without the application of energy. Both nutrient cycling and energy flow are similar in the sense that both will diffuse from regions of high...
Both the biological and physical restrictions subjected to the flow of energy can interfere with the conventional food production and eating habits of man in the future. For instance, photosynthesis is an important process through which plants manufacture their own food. Any constraint on the plant community, such as clearing...
This large amount of energy is appropriated by animals since much of it is basically stored as biomass. This stored energy is very crucial in maintaining the process of respiration in animals. This suggests that a huge amount of energy diverted for human use is redirected in other activities that...
The most important portion of the forest, which stored the greatest amount of energy, was the watersheds which comprised of a series of water bodies emanating from the forest. This can be explained by the fact plants themselves do not store significant amounts of energy because some of the energy...
Ecosystem services largely entail the myriad of benefits that are derived from the natural relationship between man and the environment. In this regard, the ecosystem is perceived as an equal supporter of life-owing to the numerous advantages obtained from it. Mankind has benefitted from the services provided by the ecosystem...
The hierarchy in ecology is important in the sense that it assists in the understanding of the population of different organisms which are present in a particular habitat in the ecosystem. Moreover, the nature of the ecosystem is also evaluated through the hierarchy of scales of space, time, and organizational...
The ecosystem structure and function are related in the sense that in an ecosystem, the structural characteristics can only be derived from the chronological physical organization whereby both the biotic and abiotic functional elements of that particular ecosystem are coordinated. For example, in an ecosystem function, the effect of energy...
There are two main laws of thermodynamics that attempt to explain the energetics of the earth-atmosphere-biosphere system. According to the first law, it is not possible to create or destroy energy. However, it can be passed on into different forms. This law structures and influences the flow of energy through...
The level of efficiency through which energy is transported through different trophic levels is referred to as ecological growth efficiency. The assimilation and acquisition of energy by different organisms in an ecosystem is the main procedure used to determine ecological growth efficiency. The product of the assimilation and exploitation efficiencies...
Primary production is the way in which autotrophs fix energy in an ecosystem. Herbivores consume a very small percentage of primary production due to the fact they have the ability to recycle important nutrients that are contained in their waste products. Once these nutrients are recycled, herbivores are in the...
Solar energy enters the atmosphere and penetrates the surface of the earth. Some of the energy is radiated back into the atmosphere and depending on the number of particles suspended in the atmosphere, the radiated energy bounces back to the earth’s surface. The water bodies also absorb this energy and...
The net quantity of primary production when all the possible costs of respired plants are inclusive will account for the net primary production. This value will vary depending on the intensity of photosynthesis and respiration in addition to biomass accumulation. Besides, the global ecosystem differs prominently in terms of production....
A pyramid of energy refers to a detailed pictorial or graphical presentation of the different levels of the trophic through which the solar energy which is being received onto the surface is transmitted into the natural ecosystem. The shape of the pyramid has varying interpretations. The energy consumed by each...
The study of energy flow and nutrient cycling processes revolve around animals to a larger extent. For instance, the energy flow from the sun is imperative in the production of food substances (through photosynthesis) consumed by animals. Moreover, animals complete the ecosystem, especially in matters such as a food chain...
A keystone species is a species that is critical in maintaining ecological structure having a superior impact on the environment. Robert notes that a keystone species has an uneven effect on its ecosystem however much small it is. They are important in controlling the type and number of various other...
The predation-prey cycle is when the population size of predators and their prey increases and decreases. When predators decrease the size of prey, it allows the resource to grow and gives room to other species to use and increase. When there is an entry in prey, the predator’s population size...
Asexual reproduction favors organisms that are found in a constant environment and have restricted movement. The number of offspring produced comes in large numbers, fast, and more efficiently, increasing survival chances. It is a good strategy because it can capture a variety of forms that can survive in scores of...
Life history models are divided into K-selected individuals and R-selected individuals. R-selected individuals according to scientific literature are ‘opportunistic’. They make use of a less crowded ecological niche, giving forth to many offspring that have a very low chance of surviving to the adult stage due to limited postnatal care....
Co-evolution is a change of a certain biological object caused by the change in the objects related to it. Co-evolution is involved in predator-prey relationships in an ecosystem in a number of ways. In particular, in case the predator’s population is reduced on the reason of some biological factors, the...
One of the biggest threats to ecosystems is caused by global warming and the greenhouse gases causing it. Greenhouse gases, along with the other gas pollutants, are considered to be the most dangerous environmental pollutants as they are spread fast and unlimitedly the reason of their chemical features. In addition,...
Biomes are the areas on the earth with similar climatic conditions. They can be also referred to as ecosystems. Biomes are directly influenced by latitude and elevation. Depending on their latitude, biomes can be hotter or colder, and wetter or dryer. For example, the Equatorial forests are territories with a...
It is universally accepted that water is life. Unfortunately, in so many regions in the world, access to clean water and even to any sort of water is a great problem for the local population. Such tendency is especially significant in developing countries. As a result, people must suffer from...
It is worth first clarifying that a model organism is an organism used as a model in biological research aimed at studying its properties, its reactions to certain stimuli, and transferring the results to the properties and reactions of other organisms. Often the use of model organisms becomes an inevitable...
Histones are the main proteins that interact with DNA to assemble nucleosomes, which in turn form chromatin chains, expressed as chromosomes in eukaryotic organisms. In other words, the long chain of a DNA molecule, twisted like a wire onto the octameric core, allows for packing the entire molecule into the...
One of the most critical tasks of modern bioinformatics is to predict and foretell the structure and, consequently, the functions of bacterial proteins. To reveal amino acid followers, -helix and -sheet location, as a rule, computer programming methods are used. Protein prediction is an incredibly important goal since it allows...
P. radiata is a widespread species of pine. It is cultivated in Australia, New Zealand, North and South America, Europe, in particular, Spain and Great Britain. Monterey pine originated from the small area on the coast of California and on the Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa islands. Its unique traits...
The authors crossed two wild strains of F. circinatum and obtained F1 generation. After that, they inoculated pine’s branches and collected only strains with the high virulence for getting F2 and F3 generation. Simultaneously, they collected the strains with low virulence. The authors chose the fungi according to the size...
The sample was obtained from the Californian population of pine. As a source of pathogenic fungi, a single wild-type perithecium was taken. It is a fruiting body of fungi. The perithecium was removed on the Petri dish with water agar in a drop of water in sterile conditions. After two...
Before explaining the main differences between the types of carbohydrates, it is necessary to define the glycemic index. It is the primary indicator responsible for fluctuations in sugar in the blood. The basis for the compilation of the glycemic index is glucose. The surplus of sugar results in the release...
Sex reproduction of F. circinatum produces high variability of strains’ virulence. The tendency to decrease virulence is genetically based and could be explained by the loss of a chromosome. In general, the level of virulence is heritable. The selection of virulence does not present in nature because this trait could...
One of the pine cultivation problems is pitch canker. Pathogenic fungi Fusarium circinatum causes this disease. The intellectual merit of the research is that the authors determined that fungi virulence selection is controlled genetically. The authors provided a possible explanation for the low level of virulence in the natural population...
The model plant was the Monterey pine. Its scientific name is Pinus radiata. The biological taxonomic classification of the plant: Division Piniphyta, Class Pinopsida, Order Pinales, Family Pinaciae, Genus Pinus, and specific name radiata. Taxon Scientific Name Division Piniphyta Class Pinopsida Order Pinales Family Pinaciae Genus + Specific name =...
The major question of the study was: how sex reproduction and selection influence the variability and the level of fungal virulence. The authors’ hypothesis was that sexual reproduction between fungi strains with different virulence leads to the variability of this characteristic in the wild population. Slinski et al. demonstrated the...
The authors crossed two wild strains of F. circinatum and obtained F1 generation. After that, they inoculated pine’s branches and collected only strains with the high virulence for getting F2 and F3 generation. Simultaneously, they collected the strains with low virulence. The authors chose the fungi according to the size...
In the process of photosynthesis, plants turn sunlight and carbon dioxide into nutrients and produce the oxygen that is also necessary for human life. It might be interesting what would happen if people had the ability to photosynthesis. It may sound tempting and noticeably; however, being a plant is not...
It has long been appreciated that what was achieved during the invention of airplanes, had long been achieved in nature by birds. The basic concept is to create a balance between weight and strength. Flight is a special adaptation of birds that enables them to obtain food, travel, escape from...
Evolution has it that mammals evolved from reptiles. As explained by Klappenbach on ‘An Introduction to Mammals,’ mammals evolved from “a group of reptiles known as Therapsids.” The adaptations that mammals acquired in favor of their reptile ancestors, is the ability to control their body temperature or a situation known...
According to Wikipedia on ‘Amniotes,’ which constitute a stage of embryonic development, they can be characterized as having distinctive membranes known as the amnion, chorion, and allantois. Some amniotes have evolved to live on land while others like the amphibians can live both on land and water. Wikipedia explains that...
Relative dating techniques studies the layers of rock or the objects embedded in the layers. This assumes that deeper layers of rock were deposited earlier in the sequence than shallow layers and therefore older, that is, successive layers of rock represent successive intervals of time. It applies the principle of...
The life and development of living organisms on Earth take place in biomes. Mediterranean Basin, also known as the Mediterranean woodlands and scrub biome, is one of the largest world’s biomes currently characterized by severe biodiversity issues and the presence of numerous endangered species. Biodiversity as such can be defined...
Homo is the genus of humans and obtains the following characteristics, such as vertical posture, the absence of hair on the body, and the high quality of intellectual thoughts. The main distinctive feature of Homo sapience, which differs from other homo species in the brain activity, and Homo sapience is...
The three distinct processes of structural development of the sexes involves: the development of gonads, internal organs, and external genitalia. Generally, all three processes occur congruently to produce an unambiguous male or female. Rare occurrences known as intersexes, elements of both male and female development occur in the same fetus....
The question about the composition of the ocean water is a challenging one because answering it involves working at great depths, often amounting to several miles deep. Another challenge of answering this question is the required knowledge of chemistry, biology, microbiology, mathematics, and technology. The final challenge is the need...
Molecular genetics is a biological field that deals with the study of genes at molecular level. This field involves the study of function and structure of genes. It analyses the patterns of inheritance to determine how particular traits like hair color, height and hereditary diseases among others, pass from parents...
Gametes are sex cells which carry the genetic information required for the next generation. During fertilization the gametes from the male and female cells fuse together to form a zygote. In a zygote, the 23 chromosomes from the male gametes and 23 chromosomes from the female cells come together to...
There are good reasons why corn is the preferred crop of choice for genetic modifications producing medicinal compounds. For instance, scientific studies on corn have contributed to comparatively more knowledge about the genetics of corn than any other crop. The farmers in the United States have significant knowledge and expertise...
Advantages and disadvantages of a quadruple: they have four legs and therefore are able to distribute their weight evenly; due to the fact that they stand close to the ground than bipeds, when exposed to the mid-day, they absorb more heat due to their big surface area. As a result,...
APHIS stands for Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. This is a US Department of Agriculture agency that regulates the field release of genetically engineered or transgenic plants.
Cross-pollination is a phenomenon that occurs when pollen from one plant’s stamen is moved to another plant’s stigma. In the case of plant-derived pharmaceutical and industrial compounds, there are chances that these compounds can end up in unintended concentration in food and feed of humans or animals and can cause...
The Mediterranean Sea is completely surrounded by land, having a surface of 2.9 million square kilometres; the depth of the sea reaches 1430 meters. The territory of the Mediterranean Basin stretches from northern Italy to Morocco and from Jordan to Portugal; the location of the basin is considered to be...
The retina is 0.3 mm thick complex neurons layers and their connections. Three layers of cell bodies are separated by two layers of axons and dendrites. The retina’s first layer is the ganglion cell layer having a single axon each. In the retina, light is converted to a set of...
The Striate cortex is thinner in layers containing output neurons that communicate with other parts of the brain. The striate cortex starts the processing of visual input. About a dozen additional areas of the human cerebral cortex participate in visual processing. They are often referred to as extrastrite areas or...
Androgens such as testosterone influence the brain and behavior in two ways. First, they act prenatally and during early infancy to organize the brain. Second, circulating androgens in later adolescence and adulthood mediate behavior by altering the activity of target neural systems. Davis (2000), in fact, claims that there may...
Photosynthesis is comprised of two components: Light reaction in which light is harvested using specific pigments mostly chlorophylls, to a specific reaction center, where photon energy is transformed to chemical energy and partly wasted as fluorescence and heat. This chemical energy drives an electron transport chain of redox compounds, starting...