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Genes are hereditary units, biologically stored pieces of information that determine which traits you will get from either or both of your parents. They are of very small size and are stored within the human body. Genes determine multiple traits of a person, but the ones related to their appearance...
Animal research has been dogged by many ethical issues, with many animal rights campaigners questioning the wisdom of using animals in research. One such case was uncovered at Columbia University in 2003. In this particular case, baboons were being used to conduct research into treatment for stroke cases. The baboons...
The chemical involved in the tasting process is present in the mouth, where it contacts nerve cells. It changes specific proteins located in the sensory cell wall and activates them. These changes influence the sensory cell to send messenger substances and, in the process, activate more nerve cells which then...
The olfactory receptor system is responsible for the identification and recognition of airborne molecules. Odorants refer to chemicals that carry the smell, flavor, fragrance, or aroma. Perceived odorants get dissolved in the olfactory epithelium located in the nose, where millions of receptors are present. They contain specialized cells to enhance...
The sense of audition supports the ability of the body to monitor the movement and position. This system works together with the vestibular system responsible for the detection of angular and linear deceleration and acceleration. The audition sensor system makes use of special cells in the inner side of the...
Perceptual constancy facilitates the recognition of an object and helps see it as unchanging in terms of color, brightness, shape, and size, including when the retinal and illumination images are altered. Color constancy explains the perception of familiar objects as containing consistent color even when changing illumination affects the reflected...
Research on restored vision and sensory restriction presents the ability of an organism to focus on other perception levels and bring out an organization of previously learned perceptions. This includes the ability to guide in executing perceptual interpretations. Organisms have the perceptual ability since their inception, and any sensory deprivation,...
For the human body to perceive pain, the ability to inform the organism that a dangerous situation is about to develop is involved. The theory of gain control, also known as the theory for pain involves two sets of nervous systems that inform the brain about the occurring pain to...
Cells have different characteristics based on their tissue source in the body. Scientists often choose cells to culture in the laboratory-based on the study aims and cell properties. Cell lines obtained from healthy tissues require an anchorage, and they only grow on a particular substrate. On the other hand, suspension...
Climate and energy use are part of the natural system in the state of Ohio. Climate determines the amount of energy that is available in the state at any given time. It allows efficient use of this energy. Energy use is also dependent on the climate of an area. When...
Locally present soil and food toxins include lead and mercury. These elements affect the local soil in that they cause reduced productivity. Increased concentration in foods can be harmful to the health of the general population. These toxins are reported through the local authorities and labs government labs that take...
Locally purchased food affects what is locally available. More purchase of a given food commodity encourages the production of more of the commodity. An example of farm produce that is produced in the state of Ohio is beef, which is produced from the many ranches that are distributed throughout the...
The prices of organic vs traditional-grown farm commodities are different in different markets. A comparison of these prices on an online market shows that organically grown products are cheaper. The price of organically produced peanut butter is $5, while an equivalent amount of traditionally grown peanut butter is $7. A...
Genetically modified food is any foodstuff that is produced after genetic engineering techniques are applied to improve the quality and other aspects of the produce. Genetically modified foods that are available at the local store include apples, tomatoes, and peanuts. These types of foods are cheap and easy to produce....
The Mannitol Salt Agar contains 7.5% sodium chloride, which makes it a selective ingredient for staphylococci. Other forms of bacteria are weakly tolerant of such a high concentration of sodium chloride, leaving staphylococci as the only tolerant microbe. The ability of staphylococci to tolerate a high concentration of sodium chloride...
A comparison of the ability of bacteria to break down erythrocytes based on the blood agar test shows that Escherichia coli is more harmful than Klebsiella pneumoniae. Escherichia coli exhibit alpha hemolysis in the blood agar test, while Klebsiella pneumoniae show gamma hemolysis. In alpha hemolysis, Escherichia coli produces hydrogen...
Proteus vulgaris look different from other forms of bacteria because of its “swarming” attributes. Swarming is the ability of the bacterium to grow and move on the surface of the media using its flagella. By swarming, Proteus vulgaris creates stretches of colonies that enable them to spread on the surface...
Based on Triple Sugar Iron Agar, the difference between the two enteric bacteria is that Klebsiella pneumoniae causes the production of gas, while Escherichia coli do not produce gas. This test shows that Klebsiella pneumoniae carry out fermentation of glucose, leading to the production of colorless and odorless gas, carbon...
The connection between climate, energy use, and global warming is obvious. The use of fuel that leads to CO2 emissions leads to the so-called greenhouse effect, which makes the temperature rise. As a result, global warming occurs, triggering changes in the climate and, thus, the destruction of natural habitats for...
Clayton’s article titled “Senate energy bill: first skirmish over US greenhouse-gas regulation” deals with the issue of CO2 emissions and other factors triggering a steep rise in greenhouse gas creation. The connection between the greenhouse effect, the jet stream, and human-caused global climate change are quite simple. Because of the...
Every country must bear the same responsibilities for earth contamination. However, some states being poorer than others, there might be a problem in defining the tools for resources preservation for the poor states. For example, India is known for its dreadful waste disposal policy. However, seeing that the state is...
In Ohio, recycling rates among entrepreneurs are quite high (66%); however, people still seem to be unaware of the importance of recycling since only 25% of the residential area members recycle. In my region, the solid waste is managed by specific services, which collect the solid waste in order to...
The concept of sustainability can be considered the key tool for addressing ecological concerns since most of the latter come from improper resource use. More to the point, the scarcity of some renewable resources can be addressed by giving these resources time to replenish. Thus, the loss of valuable resources...
The climate of the Ohio region is cool and wet, with seasonal variations in weather patterns. The climate allows variation of energy sources in the area. During winter, cold weather with limited sunlight limits solar energy that is available in the state. This weather also causes increased energy demand in...
The state of Ohio has several sources of water, which are utilized in different ways. Water resources are utilized in energy production, human and animal consumption, transport, irrigation, and cleaning. Personal uses of this water include washing, cleaning, drinking, flushing toilets, and irrigating home plants. These uses are appropriate and...
The main sources of local water pollution as listed by EPA for the state of Ohio include industrial effluent, farm chemicals, and waste from sewer systems. These sources of water pollution are all considered non-point sources of pollution because they affect people and organisms using the water downstream.
The Clean Air Act protects air in the region of Ohio in a number of ways. One of these ways is through the fines that are imposed on defiant individuals. These fines dissuade all would-be polluters, thus contributing to less pollution. The other way is through the establishment of institutions...
Insolation is the radiation generated from solar and reaches the earth’s surface. This phenomenon is usually measured by the amount of solar received per square centimeter per minute. Solar insolation plays a very important part in the climatology of the earth. One of the areas that it greatly influences includes...
Enzymes are vital in the energy production processes in the body. They serve as organic catalysts, especially in promoting metabolism. A protein is a nutritional substance that is found in all living organisms. It is directly involved in the chemical processes of life. Its functions are different depending on the...
Initially, it was believed that the first cellular life forms were anaerobic heterotrophs because they were thought to have fed on organic molecules present in the water where the cells originated. However, there are extremely low concentrations or no molecular oxygen as water molecules split through ultraviolet lights. With these...
Cells in primary cell cultures have a limited lifespan. They are obtained from healthy or unhealthy tissues in animal or human bodies. On the other hand, cell lines are obtained when primary cells are sub-cultured after they reach confluence. Cell lines have a finite lifespan and have more genotypic and...
Primary cells are obtained from either healthy or unhealthy tissues. The cells grow on a growth medium that supports cell growth and division. There are two ways of ensuring that the cells obtained from the intact tissues grow on the growth medium. One way involves attaching tissue parts to a...
There have been concerns that some scientists could produce human embryos in the laboratory and implant them in women’s wombs, thereby producing cloned persons. The alternative to this concern is to develop strict laws against the practice across the world. There has been an ethical concern that some scientists could...
The MTT assay is used to determine the number of living (viable) cells in a biological sample. The assay works on the principle of reducing the tetrazolium dye to formazan. The Trypan Blue Assay is used to determine the number of viable cells in a biological sample by counting the...
Animal pharming is the process of making human drugs by the use of transgenic animals. A transgenic animal here refers to animals that have been genetically modified. This modification includes splicing and inserting human or other animal genes into the chromosomes of these transgenic animals. After successful incorporation of these...
Transgenic cows are especially good at producing milk that contains recombinant proteins. According to Das, cows are outstanding protein factories with the potential of producing 9000 liters of milk annually (64). Of these 9000 liters, each liter produces around 2.5 grams of recombinant protein. Xenotransplantation is the process of transplanting,...
The paper used for this response argues against the deployment of transgenic crops in the U.S. and worldwide. In his The case against agricultural biotechnology, Altieri contends that there are no significant benefits to doing so, while the environmental risks are considerable. He claims that transgenic crops do not produce...
The drinking water that is available in the local area is sourced from rivers and lakes around the state. This water is provided through the local authorities who carry out purification and cleaning of the water and its distribution to the respective households and industries. The quality of Ohio water...
Land use in Ohio state is related to the availability and quality of accessible water. Farming activities, especially the ones that require irrigation in this region, are carried out around large water bodies and/or rivers. This plan provides water that is necessary for these activities. Historically, the environmental use of...
Personal family can put in place many interventions toward water management and conservation. Some of the ways that are applied include recycling wastewater. The family also uses just enough water for its needs, especially for the washing needs. The third way of water preservation as used by the family is...
The Clean Water Act contributes toward protecting water in the local area. This regulation dictates that the operations within the local area should not contribute to water pollution. This Act also spells out some of the penalties that individuals may incur when caught polluting the water sources. The Act is...
Initially, it is worth recognizing that a myriad of bacterial agents can cause infectious diseases, and therefore qualitative pathogen identification is a fundamental step. If the nurse detects Gram-negative microorganisms in a biological sample, this means that all prokaryotes have thick and robust cell walls. In turn, this indicates more...
This assignment’s fundamental idea is that the staining samples were incubated for a long time, resulting in increased color variability in the bacteria. A possible reason for this effect is prolonged cell starvation, which results in the fragile cell wall of Gram-positive prokaryotes thinning out and fixing significantly less pigment....
Virtually every chemical element on the Periodic Table is vital for sustaining life, but some of them, and nitrogen, in particular, are more important. Nitrogen is involved in a grandiose number of natural elements of the biosphere, including plant and animal proteins, air, dead organic matter, and soil mineral nutrients....
Marine ecology allows for a stoichiometric determination of the ratios of key elements necessary to support life in aquatic ecosystems. For this purpose, the Redfield ratio has traditionally been used, numerically setting the ratio of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus as 106:16:1. It is worth noting that this stoichiometric proportion is...
The success of the bacterial material collection step determines the efficiency of further staining and microbiological analysis of the organisms. Thus, it is the experimenter’s task to ensure the high quality of the procedure, preventing the occurrence of random errors and losses. Air drying of the smear is precisely the...
Primary stain The sole purpose of this reagent is to stain the cells with the selected color. A spot of red pigment stains the surrounding cells red, purple stains the cells purple, and similarly with other pigments depending on the type of cell staining. Mordant This reagent function is to...
Since color differentiation is the basis of bacterial identification during staining, the use of a primary stain and different shades makes this qualitative comparison possible. In particular, the contrasting background differs from the color of the primary stain, and therefore the bacteria are easily distinguishable.
I cannot adhere to the idea that only one of the steps is the most important because each phase of cell staining plays an essential role in the subsequent qualitative identification. Nevertheless, if the goal of the tasks is to identify the most significant and defining stage, I would say...
Pores are the openings of sweat glands and hair follicles that extend into deeper levels of the skin and connect to muscles. Each pore has an oil gland inside, which produces a protective and moisturizing oil called sebum. It helps to remove old skin cells, keeps the skin lubricated, and...
In the skin, there are tiny muscles attached to the base of a hair follicle at one end and to dermal tissue on the other end. When the body is cold, they contract all at once to generate heat, causing the hair to stand up on the skin and “goosebumps”...
There are several different types of sweat glands in the human body, and the interesting fact is that the composition of sweat depends on which gland produces it. Sweat made by eccrine glands, which are concentrated on the palms, forehead, and armpits, is watery and does not smell. The sweat...
Microorganisms are minuscule life forms that exist as unicellular, multicellular, or cell bunches. They can be partitioned into six noteworthy sorts, which are summarized below. Bacteria Microbes are unicellular life forms. The unicellular life forms are portrayed as prokaryotic because they do not have a core. They exist in four...
Organisms enter human tissues through two fundamental portals, which include mucosal surface and epithelial routes. Epithelial routes are entry portal on the body surface, which includes but are not limited to the skin. However, the mucosal entry portal includes, but is not limited to the digestive tract. Transmission of microorganisms...
All fish belong to the broad class of Pisces. Basically, members of this class exhibit common morphological characteristics. For instance, all fishes are known to be aquatic in nature: thus, they inhabit aquatic environments such as lakes and rivers. Most fishes inhabit marine environments usually in oceans and seas. However,...
Mammals are classified into three major groups depending on how their young ones develop. These categories include placental mammals, monotremes and marsupials. Monotremes are regarded as the most primitive mammals because they lay eggs that hatch into young ones. Examples of monotremes are the duck-billed platypus and echidna. Marsupials such...
Most animals have a front and a back end. Earthworms are not exempted: they too have a front and a back end. The head comprises the head which has a mouth and a tiny brain. Even though earthworms have no eyes, they detect vibrations and light through the sense of...
There are slight differences between annelids and other worms. The major difference is that annelids have segmented bodies whereas the bodies of other worms are smooth with no segments. Most annelids have developed eyes as compared to other worms. Annelids usually inhabit land and water, especially marine environments whereas other...
Earthworms are characterized by a closed circulatory system. The blood in an earthworm’s body is exclusively circulated through three main blood vessels: the dorsal blood vessels, aortic arches, and ventral blood vessels. The aortic arches in an earthworm perform the same functions that are performed by the human heart. They...
Earthworms are hermaphrodites and each earthworm has both male and female reproductive organs. The male reproductive organ of an earthworm produces sperm whereas the female reproductive system produces eggs. During mating earthworms exchange sperms. Earthworms do have two sperm receptacles and two male openings. The functions of the two sperm...
In the open circulatory system, blood is pumped into open cavities by the heart. Blood vessels transport blood at low pressure from the open cavities through the whole body. In the open circulatory system, there are no major veins or arteries that direct blood distribution or increase blood pressure. In...
Bassi was able to prove that a fungus caused a silkworm disease but later Koch found out that a protozoan led to another silkworm infection. Koch’s postulates are more credible because he fulfilled the criteria proposed by his former teacher, which are: that the disease-causing microbe should occur in all...
The cardiac cycle is the term used to describe one complete heartbeat coupled with the involved stages, which include an intervening pause, the systole, and the diastole, and in common terms, the cardiac cycle can be referred to as the heart rate. In every beat, five stages are involved, within...
In homeostasis, negative feedback is what occurs when a certain response leads to the inhibition of a particular action, and a good example is hypoventilation, whereby the blood carbon dioxide concentration is high, and thus it has to be expelled through the stimulation of pulmonary respiration. However, in hyperventilation cases,...
Conventionally, after the immune system recognizes a foreign body, the first response involves increased blood flow into the affected area, which then triggers a cascade of events that cumulatively form an immune response. Naturally, when the blood flows into the affected area increases, the blood vessels dilate, thus allowing more...
The human brain is one of the most complex things in the world as it consists of various types of elements that interact. These interactions result in the functioning of the systems of the human body. In some cases, this functioning exceeds human’s understanding of normal as some people may...
If people could transplant a human brain, it would be possible only if the new body would be cloned. Even if some person were in a state of coma, it would be unethical to use their body as the person could come to oneself. I think my brain would respond...
There are many enzymes involved in HRR in humans. Several diseases have been linked to defects in individual enzymes. For many enzymes, however, there is no human disease identified. This is because most enzymes involved in HRR do not play an active role in the malignancy of cells. Homologous Recombination...
CD4 cell counts are used in the CDC staging system to track the development of HIV in an effort to manage the epidemic. A patient is diagnosed with AIDS once the CD4 count of such a patient falls below 200mm3 (or the CD4 percentage is less than 14%), or certain...
Commensal life forms assume a huge part in avoiding contaminations. This might be essential because they deny the attacking living being access to the objective site. Commensal life forms effectively create substances that restrain the development or death of different living beings. Commensal verdure may likewise “switch parts” and turn...
Water pollution occurs when a large water mass is contaminated with pollutants. This type of pollution has adverse effects on living things. More often, the effects of water pollution can be felt a distance away from the polluted water body. Types of water pollution can be categorized into toxic substances,...
Garret Hardin coined the term Tragedy of the Commons. Hardin used the term in reference to a situation that occurs when shared resources are overexploited and exhausted. In such a situation, overuse occurs when the benefits from using a particular reserve benefit an individual, whereas the price of degradation of...
Living organisms experience a regular cyclic movement of matter of which they are composed. This cyclic flow of matter is referred to as the biogeochemical cycle. Through the cyclic flow, the resources utilized by the organisms are not lost but end up in locations that are out of reach of...
Anthropologists assert that the human culture has developed over time from simpler forms to modern complex forms. This subject has been analyzed both in unilinear and multilinear phenomena. In general, human cultural evolution has been categorized into three stages. These stages are savagery, barbarism, and civilization. Anthropologists differentiate these stages...
The HIV virus only becomes effective upon the entry into the human body, normally through blood infection upon contact with infected blood. Upon entry, HIV targets the host T-Cells or primary lymphocytes. The T-Cells defend one’s body from common but potentially fatal infections. The HIV virus attaches itself to the...
In the recent past, powerful tools and scientific innovations have revolutionized the way agriculture is done. Innovative production and processing have transformed conventional agricultural systems and the world’s capability to generate enough food for its population. Notably, these developments have come with drastic changes in economic forces and social organizations....
Physical changes such as melting and bending do not affect the molecular structure of a material. However, chemical changes do alter the molecular structure of a material. Examples of these changes include burning, decomposition, and digestion. In chemical reactions, the matter is presented with the appropriate circumstances to combine or...
Green Revolution is a term used in reference to worldwide initiatives that transpired between the years the 1940s and 1970s. The initiatives were started with the aim of increasing global food production and ending starvation and malnutrition in poorly developed nations. Norman Borlaug was the founder of the initiatives. Out...
Fish species are divided into three main classes based on their skeletal structures. The first class is the Agnatha, which comprises jawless fishes. The jawless fishes include lampreys and hagfishes. The backbone of the fishes in the Agnatha class is made of a notochord. The second class is the Chondrichthyes,...
The three types of mammals are based on how their young ones develop Monotremes, Marsupials, and Placentals. The Monotremes, the smallest class of mammals, do not produce live births but lay eggs from which their young ones are hatched. The Monotremes have mammary glands without nipples, and as a result,...
There are two phyla that lack organs, including Porifera and Cnidaria. The organisms in the class Porifera do not have organs and do not also have symmetry on any axis. The animals in the class Cnidaria lack organs, but unlike those of the Porifera, which lack symmetry, they have a...
The largest phylum in the assignment table is Arthropoda. The phylum Arthropoda is not only the largest in terms of the number of species in it but also the number of individuals it contains. The phylum is divided into three categories: insects, crustaceans, and arachnids. Apart from the butterfly species...
The plasma membrane has a bi-layer with phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids to separate various cellular components from their environment, recognize a cell, provide receptors, and regulate the movement of substances.
The extracellular matrix controls the behavior of a cell and promotes intercellular communication, cell adhesion molecules provide the connection between cells, and specialized cell junctions hold cells together and make the movement of small molecules possible.
ATP is a high-energy compound in the human body for the creation of complex molecules, generation of electricity in nerves, contraction of muscles, and transportation of chemical energy. ADP uses that kind of chemical energy.
Basic cellular functions: Movement (muscle cells generate forces) – motion (smooth muscle cells’ contraction changes the diameter of the vessel and makes people go to the toilet). Conductivity (electrical potential) – on the cell’s surface and spreads through other parts. Absorption (utilization of nutrients in cells)- the way how kidney...
The main ways of transmitting chemical signals: Hormonal – the communication of endocrines and movement of the hormone through the bloodstream. Neurohormonal – the communication of neurons that release hormones. Paracrine – when different cells secrete local chemical mediators that can be absorbed quickly. Autocrine – when cells produce signals...
Examples of transport mechanisms: Diffusion: if a concentration of glucose is higher on one side and lower on another side, glucose is diffused when it passes through the capillary walls from high to low. Passive-medicated transport: the presence of glucose in erythrocytes. Phagocytosis: large molecular substances are absorbed by the...
Determination of mitosis and cytokinesis: Interphase: slender rods are jumbled in the nucleus. Prophase: chromosomes appear, and the nuclear membrane disappears. Metaphase: interaction between centromeres and the spindle fibers takes place. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled apart. Telophase: a new nuclear membrane appears around each group of chromosomes, the fibers...
Red and brown algae uniquely adapted to their environments due to evolutionary changes. Red algae, for example, have a flexible, blade, flat structure allowing the algae to absorb water in sufficient amounts. Red color facilitates the adaptation to an environment, not allowing to be consumed by creatures and maximizing the...
Multicellular organisms have the competitive advantage to get around the surface to volume limitations. Large-sized single cells have a ratio of surface-to-volume that appears to be decreased. At the same time, the cells have certain difficulties during the process of absorbing the necessary nutrients in sufficient amounts as well as...
Eukaryotes are the cells of higher animals and plants like protozoa and fungi characterized by extensive intracellular anatomy, and prokaryotes are the cells without organelle and lack a distinct nucleus like bacteria and rickettsia.
The nucleus is located in the cell’s center. As the largest membrane-bound organelle, it promotes cell division, controls genetic information, and repairs DNA. Cytoplasmic organelles, the space between the nuclear envelop and the plasma membrane, promote intermediate metabolism, synthesis of proteins and hormones, and breakdown of cell debris.
In an open circulatory system, the heart pumps blood directly into the hemocoel, which then flows directly into an interconnected system of sinuses that are in touch with the tissues. This system allows direct transfer of oxygen ad nutrients to the tissues. In the closed circulatory system, blood is delivered...
The phylum Porifera lacks organs and has an irregular symmetry that can neither be classified as bilateral nor radial. Cephalization can be defined as an evolutionary trend in which the nervous tissue develops to become concentrated towards one end of an organism. Phyla that show cephalization include: Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida,...
There are three types of mammals that are classified based on how the young one develops. These three types of mammals include the monotremes, the marsupials, and the placentals. In the monotreme group, the young one is hatched from eggs. An example of a mammal belonging to this group is...
The Chondrichthyes are fishes that lack the true bone. Fish that fall into this category include sharks, rays, and skates belonging to this group. The members of this group have skeletons that are made of cartilage. Only their teeth and the vertebrae in other species are calcified. The calcified structure...
While it is evidently clear that most mutations have adverse outcomes in the health, growth, and development of an organism, not all mutations are deadly. Some mutations that are commonly occasioned by single-point errors in the copying of a strand of DNA may indeed bring health problems such as genetic...
In meiosis, the maternal and paternal versions of each chromosome (previously duplicated by process of DNA replication) pair to each other, and afterward, they characteristically exchange components through homologous recombination. The recombination further occasions crossover of genetic material from the maternal copy of the chromosome to the paternal copy of...
The DNA is not visible during interphase due to the fact that it has not been condensed through a process known as coiling to generate visible chromosomes. This is usually the case because enzymes during the prophase process break down the nuclear membrane and nucleolus, thus becoming invisible, and it...