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In the process of photosynthesis, plants turn sunlight and carbon dioxide into nutrients and produce the oxygen that is also necessary for human life. It might be interesting what would happen if people had the ability to photosynthesis. It may sound tempting and noticeably; however, being a plant is not...
It has long been appreciated that what was achieved during the invention of airplanes, had long been achieved in nature by birds. The basic concept is to create a balance between weight and strength. Flight is a special adaptation of birds that enables them to obtain food, travel, escape from...
Evolution has it that mammals evolved from reptiles. As explained by Klappenbach on ‘An Introduction to Mammals,’ mammals evolved from “a group of reptiles known as Therapsids.” The adaptations that mammals acquired in favor of their reptile ancestors, is the ability to control their body temperature or a situation known...
According to Wikipedia on ‘Amniotes,’ which constitute a stage of embryonic development, they can be characterized as having distinctive membranes known as the amnion, chorion, and allantois. Some amniotes have evolved to live on land while others like the amphibians can live both on land and water. Wikipedia explains that...
Relative dating techniques studies the layers of rock or the objects embedded in the layers. This assumes that deeper layers of rock were deposited earlier in the sequence than shallow layers and therefore older, that is, successive layers of rock represent successive intervals of time. It applies the principle of...
The life and development of living organisms on Earth take place in biomes. Mediterranean Basin, also known as the Mediterranean woodlands and scrub biome, is one of the largest world’s biomes currently characterized by severe biodiversity issues and the presence of numerous endangered species. Biodiversity as such can be defined...
Homo is the genus of humans and obtains the following characteristics, such as vertical posture, the absence of hair on the body, and the high quality of intellectual thoughts. The main distinctive feature of Homo sapience, which differs from other homo species in the brain activity, and Homo sapience is...
The three distinct processes of structural development of the sexes involves: the development of gonads, internal organs, and external genitalia. Generally, all three processes occur congruently to produce an unambiguous male or female. Rare occurrences known as intersexes, elements of both male and female development occur in the same fetus....
The question about the composition of the ocean water is a challenging one because answering it involves working at great depths, often amounting to several miles deep. Another challenge of answering this question is the required knowledge of chemistry, biology, microbiology, mathematics, and technology. The final challenge is the need...
Molecular genetics is a biological field that deals with the study of genes at molecular level. This field involves the study of function and structure of genes. It analyses the patterns of inheritance to determine how particular traits like hair color, height and hereditary diseases among others, pass from parents...
Gametes are sex cells which carry the genetic information required for the next generation. During fertilization the gametes from the male and female cells fuse together to form a zygote. In a zygote, the 23 chromosomes from the male gametes and 23 chromosomes from the female cells come together to...
There are good reasons why corn is the preferred crop of choice for genetic modifications producing medicinal compounds. For instance, scientific studies on corn have contributed to comparatively more knowledge about the genetics of corn than any other crop. The farmers in the United States have significant knowledge and expertise...
Advantages and disadvantages of a quadruple: they have four legs and therefore are able to distribute their weight evenly; due to the fact that they stand close to the ground than bipeds, when exposed to the mid-day, they absorb more heat due to their big surface area. As a result,...
APHIS stands for Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. This is a US Department of Agriculture agency that regulates the field release of genetically engineered or transgenic plants.
Cross-pollination is a phenomenon that occurs when pollen from one plant’s stamen is moved to another plant’s stigma. In the case of plant-derived pharmaceutical and industrial compounds, there are chances that these compounds can end up in unintended concentration in food and feed of humans or animals and can cause...
The Mediterranean Sea is completely surrounded by land, having a surface of 2.9 million square kilometres; the depth of the sea reaches 1430 meters. The territory of the Mediterranean Basin stretches from northern Italy to Morocco and from Jordan to Portugal; the location of the basin is considered to be...
The retina is 0.3 mm thick complex neurons layers and their connections. Three layers of cell bodies are separated by two layers of axons and dendrites. The retina’s first layer is the ganglion cell layer having a single axon each. In the retina, light is converted to a set of...
The Striate cortex is thinner in layers containing output neurons that communicate with other parts of the brain. The striate cortex starts the processing of visual input. About a dozen additional areas of the human cerebral cortex participate in visual processing. They are often referred to as extrastrite areas or...
Androgens such as testosterone influence the brain and behavior in two ways. First, they act prenatally and during early infancy to organize the brain. Second, circulating androgens in later adolescence and adulthood mediate behavior by altering the activity of target neural systems. Davis (2000), in fact, claims that there may...
Photosynthesis is comprised of two components: Light reaction in which light is harvested using specific pigments mostly chlorophylls, to a specific reaction center, where photon energy is transformed to chemical energy and partly wasted as fluorescence and heat. This chemical energy drives an electron transport chain of redox compounds, starting...
In muscles and liver in absence of oxygen sugars are broken down up to pyruvate. In Yeast and Bacteria under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate can be converted to lactic acid (Lactobacilli), butyric acid (butyric acid bacteria) and ethanol (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). These fermentation reactions generate two ATP molecules per mol of glucose...
All chordates and non-chordates like human and Amoeba; Fungi and yeasts like Penicillium notatum and Saccharomyces cerevisiae; Heterotrophic eubacteria like Escherichia coli.
All angiosperm and gymnosperm higher plants like Pisum sativum: Green algae like Chlorella vulgaris; Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae) like Synechococcus elongates; Photosynthetic eubacteria like Rhodopseudomona ruburum.
The three types of mammals classified on the basis of how their young develop are the following: monotremes, marsupials, and placental mammals. Quite very distinct from other mammals, monotremes can lay eggs rather than give birth to their young. Only three types of mammals can be classified as monotremes. These...
All fish do not possess similar skeletal structures because they can be classified into four groups in terms of their skeletal structure: jawless fish, jawed cartilaginous fish, jawed ray-finned fish, and the jawed lobe-finned fish. The most primitive types of fish are the jawless fish and the jawed lobe-finned fish....
Phylum Arthropoda has the most species compared to all other phyla. In fact, there are about 1 million species of arthropods, and scientists estimate that millions more are still undiscovered. Species that belong in Phylum Arthropoda are all insects (moth, butterflies, etc.), arachnids (spiders, scorpions, etc.), myriapods (centipedes and millipedes),...
Not all organisms have three germ layers. The phyla that have fewer than three germ layers are Porifera (absent germ layer) and Cnidaria (2 germ layers).
The phyla that show cephalization include Nematoda, Arthropoda, Platyhelminthes, Annelida, Mollusca, and Chordata.
a. Eye discoloration- this may be brought about by dehydration of the reptile. It might be a sign of failure to thrive. b. Failure to thrive- this psychological disorder experienced by reptiles at the time of captivity may lead to nutritional disorders and may even lead to the death of...
Autonomic nervous system imbalances can create several problems in the human body. They include diseases associated with blood pressure, heart, breathing and swallowing, and erectile function. The reason for it is that this nervous system controls the significant involuntary actions of the body. When something is wrong, it may result...
Taste and smell are chemical senses; taste receptors are located in the oral cavity, and smell ones are situated in the nasal one. Taste receptor cells are organized into groups forming taste buds. Their function is to connect with the sensory neurons conducting information to the brain. Olfactory receptors, in...
The divisions of the ear include the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The outer part ensures protection and channels sound. The middle one is responsible for transferring vibrations from the eardrum. Finally, the inner part of the ear contains the hearing organ itself and manages the...
The three layers of the eye include the fibroid tunic (the outer one), the vascular tunic (the middle one), and the nervous tunic (the inner one). The outer layer has the function of protecting the eyeballs and ensuring that they are in the right shape. The vascular tunic supplies the...
The main nerve plexuses of the body are the spinal and autonomic ones. The first category includes cervical, branchial, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal plexuses. The second one involves solar, myenteric, submucosal, and cardiac plexuses, and pharyngeal plexus of the vagus nerve. Spinal plexuses innerve the neck, shoulders, arms, hands, back,...
One of the organs having dual innervation is the heart, affected by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The first one releases catecholamines to accelerate the heart rate while the second one uses acetylcholine to slow it. Thus, the sympathetic system prepares the body for stressful situations, and the parasympathetic...
The nervous system is responsible for maintaining homeostasis of the body through monitoring, provision of response, and regulation of systems in the body. There are receptors both inside and outside the body that detect a change in the conditions. When conditions fall out of the normal range, the receptors detect...
Sensory organs such as the eye transmit signals through cranial nerves. The visual pathway is made up of cells that transfer stimuli from the environment through the eye to the brain. The series of dells and synapses that make the path include retina, optic nerve, optic tract, optic radiation, and...
The nervous system is divided into two major systems: central and peripheral. The Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord, while the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is made up of nerves that are connected to the brain or spine. The CNS functions to store memory, receive information...
The direct enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is referred to as a solid-phase enzyme immunoassay used to identify and quantify the antibodies present in a sample. In most cases, it has been used to detect the anti-HIV antibodies present in a patient’s serum. In direct ELISA, the antigen is immobilized through...
labeling. Fluorescent antibodies are described as antibodies tagged with a fluorescent compound to allow for their detection and visibility. Such compounds absorb light of a particular wavelength and emit light of a longer wavelength. The basis of the fluorescent antibodies technique revolves around labeling specific antibodies with fluorescent dyes, such...
The complement fixation test is used to evaluate the presence of an antibody in the serum. The test is based on two components. The first component functions as an indicator system that uses a mixture of sheep erythrocytes, complement-fixing antibodies secreted against the sheep erythrocytes (immunoglobin G), and an exogenous...
Neutralization tests are employed in the inactivation of viruses and evaluation of the neutralizing bodies. The test operates under the principle that in the presence of a virus, neutralizing bodies are secreted to inhibit or neutralize its biological effects by forming a virus-antibody complex. The complex minimizes or stops viral...
Precipitation reactions and immunodiffusion tests are the gold standard serological assays. They are usually used to detect the level of immunoglobin from the serum of an infected patient. The assay operates on the principle that when a soluble antigen and antibody concurrently migrate towards each other in a media, they...
Monoclonal antibodies are defined as homogenous specific antigen blood proteins produced in vitro from a single B cell. This entails immunizing an animal severally with a particular antigen, followed by removing B cells from the spleen. The removed B cells are then merged with cancerous B cells referred to as...
Skeletal and integumentary systems each have their purpose as well as the conjoint ones. The human skeleton has two primary functions: first, it provides support for the body in its entirety, and, secondly, it acts as the body’s storehouse for minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus. The integumentary system forms the...
Integumentary and skeletal systems are interconnected and both essential for maintaining bone health. The inability to maintain homeostasis between them may lead to several bone diseases, including osteoporosis. In osteoporosis, the normal functioning of osteoblasts and osteoclasts is impaired due to several factors, leading to increased bone fragility and, while...
It is strongly recommended for any medical worker to know about bones, their names, and their locations. There are 206 bones in an adult skeleton that are classified as per their shapes and functions. For example, the awareness of this variety of the skeletal system enhances a better and faster...
Melanin and keratin are found in the outer layer of the skin and contribute to the development of skin and hair. Melanin is a pigment that is produced by a melanocyte cell to determine the tone of hair and skin. Keratin is a protein that is produced by a keratinocyte...
The integumentary system represents the skin and its structures, the aim of which is to protect the human body. There are multiple layers of cells and tissues in the skin, with blood vessels and nerve fibers supporting the connection with the brain. Betts et al. identified three major layers of...
A study by Puliese et al. focused on lactate threshold intensity training in master swimmers. The swimmers performed two 6-week training periods, the first with high volume at low intensity while the next period was the low volume at high intensity. The study found that in master swimmers, a 33%...
Lactate threshold training is a training method meant to increase an individual’s intensity endurance performance, thus raising the blood lactate threshold. While VO2max has some influence from genetics and natural athleticism, the lactate threshold can be raised manually through proper training. Having a high VO2max without a good lactate threshold...
VO2max is the maximum volume of oxygen the body can deliver to muscles at work per minute. The lactate threshold along VO2max is considered the most responsive physiological indicator to endurance training and physical efficiency. Therefore, dependent on the level of training, the lactate threshold occurs at different levels. For...
Lactate threshold is a common term used by athletes, coaches, and sports medicine professionals but it remains highly disputed on its exact definition. Lactate threshold is commonly referred to as the level of high-intensity exercise, which leads to increase lactate levels that can only be sustained for a period of...
A genotype is the genetic constitution of an organism, whereas a phenotype is the observed physical characteristics of an organism.
Cytoplasm refers to the substance of the cell inside the plasma membrane. It is thick, aqueous, semitransparent, and elastic.Mitochondria are the primary sites of ATP production. They multiply by binary fission and are specific to eukaryotes.Cell membrane encloses the contents of the cell.Fimbriae can occur at the poles of the...
From far away, it looks like a cell wall with little specks on it, and from close up, it looks like structure bacteria that looks about the same size as a grain of rice.
Cell wall in plants is made of cellulose fibers and other cementing materials, while cell membranes are made of phospholipids and proteins. Cell walls support the cell while cell membranes control what gets inside and out of the cell.
The features found in prokaryotes but not eukaryotes are capsule, fimbriae, flagella.The capsule provides a protective coating to the cell. The fimbriae and flagella enable the cell to move.
The features that are found in eukaryotes but not prokaryotes are the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. These features enable specific physiological processes to be compartmentalized and restricted within particular organelles.The nucleus encloses genetic material within a nuclear envelope.The mitochondria enable the production of energy in the cell.The...
Bacterial bioremediation may have particular disadvantages. It is a complex and fragile process that is sensitive to environmental factors and toxicity levels, which may not be conducive to bacteria function. The bioprocess itself takes a prolonged amount of time to take effect in comparison to other remediation methods or technologies....
The use of genetically engineered microorganisms is a practice that has been occurring since the 1970s. Due to the broad spectrum of applications for bioremediation, as human interference is causing enormous damage to the environment, this has become a promising field of study. The bioengineered microbes are created by identifying...
Alcanivorax borkumensis participates in the biochemical process known as hydrocarbon degradation. Microbial remediation uses the metabolism functions of bacteria to remove xenobiotics and synthetic pollutant compounds present in higher concentrations than natural occurrence (usually due to human interference). A contaminant such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon found in crude oil is...
Alcanivorax borkumensis is a rod-shaped degrading bacterium that is commonly associated with natural bioremediate oil spills. It is gram-negative and halophilic. It is in the Proteobacteria phylum and gammaproteobacterial class. This bacterium is classified as a marine hydrocarbon-degrading organism. Its physiology is unusual, characterized by oligotrophy with a restricted growth...
Salmonella is a bacterium commonly associated with a foodborne illness caused by the salmonellosis infection. The disease is responsible for 1.2 million infections and 450 deaths in the United States annually. There are more than 2,500 various serotypes identified. This paper will discuss a relatively common Salmonella enterica. It is...
Video on metabolism Cellular metabolism is a biochemical process that occurs in the mitochondrion. This organelle is also known as the “powerhouse” of the cell and is responsible for energy conversion by oxidizing elements such as glucose and carbohydrates into Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Some cells, such as blood cells, do...
The products of HOX genes are HOX proteins, which are transcription factors. These proteins bind to enhancer sections of DNA to repress or activate a specific set of genes. In Drosophila, HOX genes regulate the development of antennae and other appendages. During its embryonic development, there is the gradient of...
The main strategic task of the Human Genome Project for the future is to study DNA variations at the level of individual nucleotides in different organs and cells of individuals and to identify these differences. Typically, single mutations in human DNA occur on average per thousand unchanged bases. An analysis...
To answer the given questions, it is critical to understand that one’s hemoglobin structure can be considered as a completely genetic trait. Sickle cell anemia is a disease of a monogenic and point mutation in nature, that is, due to a single mutation in the gene. Sickle cell anemia is...
In modern developmental biology, great importance is attached to the study of molecular mechanisms of morphogenesis control. It is now believed that a huge variety of animal forms has been achieved during evolution due to changes in genetic development programs. The elements of these programs are studied by analyzing the...
The Human Genome Project was conducted in order to decode the entire genome of a person. The main goal of the project is to determine the sequence of nucleotides in all molecules of human DNA with the simultaneous establishment of localization of all genes. Priority areas were declared structural and...
The biggest misconception I have had in understanding genetic processes is the widespread notion that genetics only determines one’s physical makeup, whereas behavior and ability to learn are based on individual experience. Although the given view might be correct to an extent, it is important to note that genes can...
Chronic inflammatory diseases and pathologies lead to a sharp linear increase in the level of interleukin-6 in the blood. In particular, the concentration of cytokines increases with ovarian cancer, atherosclerosis, and strokes. Inflammatory biomarkers and atherosclerosis. International heart journal, 15-346. The reduced content of interleukin-6 indicates the success of treatment...
Aneuploidy is defined as any deviation from the normal number of chromosomes, in particular when a cell nucleus has too many or too few chromosomes. The cell cycle is a complex sequence of events during which a cell duplicates its contents. Mutations of the regulatory mechanisms of proper cellular reproduction...
Photorespiration (also known as C2 photosynthesis) is the process of metabolism of Phosphoglycolate that occurs during RuBisCO-catalyzed oxygenation. Phosphoglycolate is then metabolized to form carbon dioxide and ammonia. The photorespiratory pathway is enzymatic, and it does not generate ATP. There are two forms of adaptations that evolved in plants living...
The source of the electrons in the electron transport chain in the chloroplast is water. Photosynthetic organisms use sunlight to split water to obtain oxygen, hydrogen, and electrons (this process is called the photooxidation of water). Once electrons pass through the chain, they participate in the photoreduction of NADP+ to...
Plants are green because they contain the natural pigment called chlorophyll, which is concentrated in chloroplasts. Chlorophyll absorbs practically all wavelengths of light, including red, yellow, and blue, and reflects green color. It is important to notice that chlorophyll is a key component in the process of photosynthesis and can...
Cells do not run the fermentation process in order to make ethanol or lactate, which are waste products. The reason why cells run the fermentation process is to regenerate NAD+ from NADH. Therefore, the main aim is to keep NAD+ coming in order to run glycolysis. Even though the source...
An endogenous electron acceptor is the one that was formed within the system. A typical example of an endogenous electron acceptor is pyruvate. An exogenous electron acceptor is one that comes from the outside of the system. In typical aerobic respiration, the endogenous electron acceptor is oxygen. In order to...
The ability of uncouplers to poke holes in the inner mitochondrial membrane would reduce the amount of ATP produced. This is because protons could move in a free direction through the membrane instead of powering the synthesis of ATP. For example, as an uncoupler, dinitrophenol can separate the flow of...
NADH and FADH2 are two sources of electrons in the mitochondrial electron transport chain. As electron carriers, NADH and FADH2 give their electrons and get oxidized. The final electron acceptor that takes electrons once they pass through the chain of all the proteins is oxygen, which is why it is...
Darwin’s theory of evolution starts with the concept of variation existing among different organisms within a group. Darwin differentiated between three approaches to variation: There is inheritable variation in each species (including domesticated species); Some of the inheritable variations are more productive for obtaining resources, surviving, and producing offspring; There...
The finding of the susceptibility of HSAM individuals to false memory surprised me because I thought that these people should be invulnerable to memory distortion since they are able “to recall even distant autobiographical information with an exceptional level of accuracy” (Patihis et al., 2013, p. 20950). However, Patihis et...
In the case of HSAM, possible relational influences should be taken into account since our memories, experiences, and thoughts ultimately constitute our personality as such. Hence, the ability to recall one’s life in close detail naturally influences a human character to a great extent. If one partner has HSAM, it...
The caudate, as a part of the implicit memory system, is involved in habit formation and automatic performing tasks. One can observe all these features of behavior in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Indeed, HSAM individuals are prone to the scrupulous collection and accurate categorization of things, facts, and memories. This necessity to...
Speaking about energy, one should remember the principle of conservation. It states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant (Alberts et al., 2014). In other words, it can be neither created nor destroyed as it remains conserved to be later used for various purposes. Chemical energy peculiar...
Enzymes are specific biological molecules that help to increase the speed of all reactions and processes in cells. They play a critical role in the work of the body as they take part in metabolic and digestion functions. Every enzyme is responsible for a specific reaction which means that only...
Drinking water from the ocean can be hazardous for a person. It contains huge amounts of salt, which have a specific effect on the body. The fact is that osmosis, a certain type of diffusion that involves water, is responsible for the stabilizing of salt concentration on both sides of...
All cell types have a specific cell membrane which is critical for their survival. It is also known as the plasma membrane and presents itself a double layer of proteins and lipids surrounding a cell and protecting the cytoplasm from the environment (Simon, Dickey, & Reece, 2019). One of its...
There are two basic types of cells which are prokaryotic and eukaryotic ones. Every form has its own unique differences that differentiate it from another one. The first critical element that distinguishes these two types is the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells include it surrounded by an envelope made of two membranes...
DNA is a nucleic acid that contains the genotype of an individual and transmits information by inheritance through self-reproducing. RNA is a ribonucleic acid with monomers called nucleotides. There are some similarities and differences in the structure and functions of DNA and RNA. The main difference is that the helix...
Thin ice appears in the shallow depth when sub-zero temperatures are established on the coast of lakes and reservoirs. According to Huang et al. (2019), the water cools and freezes in deeper places with frost increasing. The process goes from the shores of the reservoir to the center. An aqueous...
The relationship between the primary structure and function of the protein is given genetically and allows organisms of the same species to maintain a consistent set of proteins. However, the proteins of living organisms that perform the same function are not identical in their primary structure. The flow of information...
All living organisms share a standard set of characteristics. Reproduction helps to preserve and increase the number of species of a certain type. Under particular conditions, new plants appear from seeds and offsprings in animals. The growth and development of organism traits occur on the basis of inheritance or genetic...
Biological oxygen demand (BOD), also known as biochemical oxygen demand, refers to the degree of dissolved oxygen that aerobic organisms require to decompose organic matter available in a specific water sample at a given temperature over a set duration. One of the causes of BOD is poor treatment of wastewater,...
The first error associated with the research linking brain structure to psychological functions relates to the idea that specific brain parts cause certain psychological functions. This is problematic because many different parts play various roles in specific psychological functions regardless of what “lights up” during MRI studies. Therefore, the perfect...
Diminishing returns is a term used in reference to a reduction in a factor of production and the associated reduction in its marginal production even as the factor in question increases. According to Colander, this statement is true because it reaches a point of efficiency where all factors of production...
All I know about aging in general and the aging of the brain, in particular, supports the first theory. With aging, reaction time slows down, and intelligence may decline significantly (although there is still a chance that it will be steady for the whole lifespan). It is explained by the...
It should be noted that the concept of frailty had originated from the works of biogerontologists, but it gained increasing importance in recent decades due to its significance for more broad issues related to aging. In general, it is possible to characterize frailty in the following way: it is a...
a. Monocytes are powerful phagocytes The cellular organelles that must be present in abundance for this function are phagosomes. Phagosomes work by forming a membrane that engulfs the foreign object to be phagocytosed. The resultant phagosome fuses with lysosomes that contain digestive enzymes, which finally digest the foreign body and...
No red blood cells were seen under the microscope when a drop of blood was placed in distilled water. This observation can be explained by the fact that distilled water is a hypotonic solution with respect to the inside of the red blood cells. Therefore, the cells absorbed water via...