Get answers from academic experts to any study-related questions.
a. Eye discoloration- this may be brought about by dehydration of the reptile. It might be a sign of failure to thrive. b. Failure to thrive- this psychological disorder experienced by reptiles at the time of captivity may lead to nutritional disorders and may even lead to the death of...
Autonomic nervous system imbalances can create several problems in the human body. They include diseases associated with blood pressure, heart, breathing and swallowing, and erectile function. The reason for it is that this nervous system controls the significant involuntary actions of the body. When something is wrong, it may result...
Taste and smell are chemical senses; taste receptors are located in the oral cavity, and smell ones are situated in the nasal one. Taste receptor cells are organized into groups forming taste buds. Their function is to connect with the sensory neurons conducting information to the brain. Olfactory receptors, in...
The divisions of the ear include the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The outer part ensures protection and channels sound. The middle one is responsible for transferring vibrations from the eardrum. Finally, the inner part of the ear contains the hearing organ itself and manages the...
The three layers of the eye include the fibroid tunic (the outer one), the vascular tunic (the middle one), and the nervous tunic (the inner one). The outer layer has the function of protecting the eyeballs and ensuring that they are in the right shape. The vascular tunic supplies the...
The main nerve plexuses of the body are the spinal and autonomic ones. The first category includes cervical, branchial, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal plexuses. The second one involves solar, myenteric, submucosal, and cardiac plexuses, and pharyngeal plexus of the vagus nerve. Spinal plexuses innerve the neck, shoulders, arms, hands, back,...
One of the organs having dual innervation is the heart, affected by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The first one releases catecholamines to accelerate the heart rate while the second one uses acetylcholine to slow it. Thus, the sympathetic system prepares the body for stressful situations, and the parasympathetic...
The nervous system is responsible for maintaining homeostasis of the body through monitoring, provision of response, and regulation of systems in the body. There are receptors both inside and outside the body that detect a change in the conditions. When conditions fall out of the normal range, the receptors detect...
Sensory organs such as the eye transmit signals through cranial nerves. The visual pathway is made up of cells that transfer stimuli from the environment through the eye to the brain. The series of dells and synapses that make the path include retina, optic nerve, optic tract, optic radiation, and...
The nervous system is divided into two major systems: central and peripheral. The Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord, while the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is made up of nerves that are connected to the brain or spine. The CNS functions to store memory, receive information...
The direct enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is referred to as a solid-phase enzyme immunoassay used to identify and quantify the antibodies present in a sample. In most cases, it has been used to detect the anti-HIV antibodies present in a patient’s serum. In direct ELISA, the antigen is immobilized through...
labeling. Fluorescent antibodies are described as antibodies tagged with a fluorescent compound to allow for their detection and visibility. Such compounds absorb light of a particular wavelength and emit light of a longer wavelength. The basis of the fluorescent antibodies technique revolves around labeling specific antibodies with fluorescent dyes, such...
The complement fixation test is used to evaluate the presence of an antibody in the serum. The test is based on two components. The first component functions as an indicator system that uses a mixture of sheep erythrocytes, complement-fixing antibodies secreted against the sheep erythrocytes (immunoglobin G), and an exogenous...
Neutralization tests are employed in the inactivation of viruses and evaluation of the neutralizing bodies. The test operates under the principle that in the presence of a virus, neutralizing bodies are secreted to inhibit or neutralize its biological effects by forming a virus-antibody complex. The complex minimizes or stops viral...
Precipitation reactions and immunodiffusion tests are the gold standard serological assays. They are usually used to detect the level of immunoglobin from the serum of an infected patient. The assay operates on the principle that when a soluble antigen and antibody concurrently migrate towards each other in a media, they...
Monoclonal antibodies are defined as homogenous specific antigen blood proteins produced in vitro from a single B cell. This entails immunizing an animal severally with a particular antigen, followed by removing B cells from the spleen. The removed B cells are then merged with cancerous B cells referred to as...
Skeletal and integumentary systems each have their purpose as well as the conjoint ones. The human skeleton has two primary functions: first, it provides support for the body in its entirety, and, secondly, it acts as the body’s storehouse for minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus. The integumentary system forms the...
Integumentary and skeletal systems are interconnected and both essential for maintaining bone health. The inability to maintain homeostasis between them may lead to several bone diseases, including osteoporosis. In osteoporosis, the normal functioning of osteoblasts and osteoclasts is impaired due to several factors, leading to increased bone fragility and, while...
It is strongly recommended for any medical worker to know about bones, their names, and their locations. There are 206 bones in an adult skeleton that are classified as per their shapes and functions. For example, the awareness of this variety of the skeletal system enhances a better and faster...
Melanin and keratin are found in the outer layer of the skin and contribute to the development of skin and hair. Melanin is a pigment that is produced by a melanocyte cell to determine the tone of hair and skin. Keratin is a protein that is produced by a keratinocyte...
The integumentary system represents the skin and its structures, the aim of which is to protect the human body. There are multiple layers of cells and tissues in the skin, with blood vessels and nerve fibers supporting the connection with the brain. Betts et al. identified three major layers of...
A study by Puliese et al. focused on lactate threshold intensity training in master swimmers. The swimmers performed two 6-week training periods, the first with high volume at low intensity while the next period was the low volume at high intensity. The study found that in master swimmers, a 33%...
Lactate threshold training is a training method meant to increase an individual’s intensity endurance performance, thus raising the blood lactate threshold. While VO2max has some influence from genetics and natural athleticism, the lactate threshold can be raised manually through proper training. Having a high VO2max without a good lactate threshold...
VO2max is the maximum volume of oxygen the body can deliver to muscles at work per minute. The lactate threshold along VO2max is considered the most responsive physiological indicator to endurance training and physical efficiency. Therefore, dependent on the level of training, the lactate threshold occurs at different levels. For...
Lactate threshold is a common term used by athletes, coaches, and sports medicine professionals but it remains highly disputed on its exact definition. Lactate threshold is commonly referred to as the level of high-intensity exercise, which leads to increase lactate levels that can only be sustained for a period of...
A genotype is the genetic constitution of an organism, whereas a phenotype is the observed physical characteristics of an organism.
Cytoplasm refers to the substance of the cell inside the plasma membrane. It is thick, aqueous, semitransparent, and elastic.Mitochondria are the primary sites of ATP production. They multiply by binary fission and are specific to eukaryotes.Cell membrane encloses the contents of the cell.Fimbriae can occur at the poles of the...
From far away, it looks like a cell wall with little specks on it, and from close up, it looks like structure bacteria that looks about the same size as a grain of rice.
Cell wall in plants is made of cellulose fibers and other cementing materials, while cell membranes are made of phospholipids and proteins. Cell walls support the cell while cell membranes control what gets inside and out of the cell.
The features found in prokaryotes but not eukaryotes are capsule, fimbriae, flagella.The capsule provides a protective coating to the cell. The fimbriae and flagella enable the cell to move.
The features that are found in eukaryotes but not prokaryotes are the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. These features enable specific physiological processes to be compartmentalized and restricted within particular organelles.The nucleus encloses genetic material within a nuclear envelope.The mitochondria enable the production of energy in the cell.The...
Bacterial bioremediation may have particular disadvantages. It is a complex and fragile process that is sensitive to environmental factors and toxicity levels, which may not be conducive to bacteria function. The bioprocess itself takes a prolonged amount of time to take effect in comparison to other remediation methods or technologies....
The use of genetically engineered microorganisms is a practice that has been occurring since the 1970s. Due to the broad spectrum of applications for bioremediation, as human interference is causing enormous damage to the environment, this has become a promising field of study. The bioengineered microbes are created by identifying...
Alcanivorax borkumensis participates in the biochemical process known as hydrocarbon degradation. Microbial remediation uses the metabolism functions of bacteria to remove xenobiotics and synthetic pollutant compounds present in higher concentrations than natural occurrence (usually due to human interference). A contaminant such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon found in crude oil is...
Alcanivorax borkumensis is a rod-shaped degrading bacterium that is commonly associated with natural bioremediate oil spills. It is gram-negative and halophilic. It is in the Proteobacteria phylum and gammaproteobacterial class. This bacterium is classified as a marine hydrocarbon-degrading organism. Its physiology is unusual, characterized by oligotrophy with a restricted growth...
Salmonella is a bacterium commonly associated with a foodborne illness caused by the salmonellosis infection. The disease is responsible for 1.2 million infections and 450 deaths in the United States annually. There are more than 2,500 various serotypes identified. This paper will discuss a relatively common Salmonella enterica. It is...
Video on metabolism Cellular metabolism is a biochemical process that occurs in the mitochondrion. This organelle is also known as the “powerhouse” of the cell and is responsible for energy conversion by oxidizing elements such as glucose and carbohydrates into Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Some cells, such as blood cells, do...
The products of HOX genes are HOX proteins, which are transcription factors. These proteins bind to enhancer sections of DNA to repress or activate a specific set of genes. In Drosophila, HOX genes regulate the development of antennae and other appendages. During its embryonic development, there is the gradient of...
The main strategic task of the Human Genome Project for the future is to study DNA variations at the level of individual nucleotides in different organs and cells of individuals and to identify these differences. Typically, single mutations in human DNA occur on average per thousand unchanged bases. An analysis...
To answer the given questions, it is critical to understand that one’s hemoglobin structure can be considered as a completely genetic trait. Sickle cell anemia is a disease of a monogenic and point mutation in nature, that is, due to a single mutation in the gene. Sickle cell anemia is...
In modern developmental biology, great importance is attached to the study of molecular mechanisms of morphogenesis control. It is now believed that a huge variety of animal forms has been achieved during evolution due to changes in genetic development programs. The elements of these programs are studied by analyzing the...
The Human Genome Project was conducted in order to decode the entire genome of a person. The main goal of the project is to determine the sequence of nucleotides in all molecules of human DNA with the simultaneous establishment of localization of all genes. Priority areas were declared structural and...
The biggest misconception I have had in understanding genetic processes is the widespread notion that genetics only determines one’s physical makeup, whereas behavior and ability to learn are based on individual experience. Although the given view might be correct to an extent, it is important to note that genes can...
Chronic inflammatory diseases and pathologies lead to a sharp linear increase in the level of interleukin-6 in the blood. In particular, the concentration of cytokines increases with ovarian cancer, atherosclerosis, and strokes. Inflammatory biomarkers and atherosclerosis. International heart journal, 15-346. The reduced content of interleukin-6 indicates the success of treatment...
Aneuploidy is defined as any deviation from the normal number of chromosomes, in particular when a cell nucleus has too many or too few chromosomes. The cell cycle is a complex sequence of events during which a cell duplicates its contents. Mutations of the regulatory mechanisms of proper cellular reproduction...
Photorespiration (also known as C2 photosynthesis) is the process of metabolism of Phosphoglycolate that occurs during RuBisCO-catalyzed oxygenation. Phosphoglycolate is then metabolized to form carbon dioxide and ammonia. The photorespiratory pathway is enzymatic, and it does not generate ATP. There are two forms of adaptations that evolved in plants living...
The source of the electrons in the electron transport chain in the chloroplast is water. Photosynthetic organisms use sunlight to split water to obtain oxygen, hydrogen, and electrons (this process is called the photooxidation of water). Once electrons pass through the chain, they participate in the photoreduction of NADP+ to...
Plants are green because they contain the natural pigment called chlorophyll, which is concentrated in chloroplasts. Chlorophyll absorbs practically all wavelengths of light, including red, yellow, and blue, and reflects green color. It is important to notice that chlorophyll is a key component in the process of photosynthesis and can...
Cells do not run the fermentation process in order to make ethanol or lactate, which are waste products. The reason why cells run the fermentation process is to regenerate NAD+ from NADH. Therefore, the main aim is to keep NAD+ coming in order to run glycolysis. Even though the source...
An endogenous electron acceptor is the one that was formed within the system. A typical example of an endogenous electron acceptor is pyruvate. An exogenous electron acceptor is one that comes from the outside of the system. In typical aerobic respiration, the endogenous electron acceptor is oxygen. In order to...
The ability of uncouplers to poke holes in the inner mitochondrial membrane would reduce the amount of ATP produced. This is because protons could move in a free direction through the membrane instead of powering the synthesis of ATP. For example, as an uncoupler, dinitrophenol can separate the flow of...
NADH and FADH2 are two sources of electrons in the mitochondrial electron transport chain. As electron carriers, NADH and FADH2 give their electrons and get oxidized. The final electron acceptor that takes electrons once they pass through the chain of all the proteins is oxygen, which is why it is...
Darwin’s theory of evolution starts with the concept of variation existing among different organisms within a group. Darwin differentiated between three approaches to variation: There is inheritable variation in each species (including domesticated species); Some of the inheritable variations are more productive for obtaining resources, surviving, and producing offspring; There...
The finding of the susceptibility of HSAM individuals to false memory surprised me because I thought that these people should be invulnerable to memory distortion since they are able “to recall even distant autobiographical information with an exceptional level of accuracy” (Patihis et al., 2013, p. 20950). However, Patihis et...
In the case of HSAM, possible relational influences should be taken into account since our memories, experiences, and thoughts ultimately constitute our personality as such. Hence, the ability to recall one’s life in close detail naturally influences a human character to a great extent. If one partner has HSAM, it...
The caudate, as a part of the implicit memory system, is involved in habit formation and automatic performing tasks. One can observe all these features of behavior in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Indeed, HSAM individuals are prone to the scrupulous collection and accurate categorization of things, facts, and memories. This necessity to...
Speaking about energy, one should remember the principle of conservation. It states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant (Alberts et al., 2014). In other words, it can be neither created nor destroyed as it remains conserved to be later used for various purposes. Chemical energy peculiar...
Enzymes are specific biological molecules that help to increase the speed of all reactions and processes in cells. They play a critical role in the work of the body as they take part in metabolic and digestion functions. Every enzyme is responsible for a specific reaction which means that only...
Drinking water from the ocean can be hazardous for a person. It contains huge amounts of salt, which have a specific effect on the body. The fact is that osmosis, a certain type of diffusion that involves water, is responsible for the stabilizing of salt concentration on both sides of...
All cell types have a specific cell membrane which is critical for their survival. It is also known as the plasma membrane and presents itself a double layer of proteins and lipids surrounding a cell and protecting the cytoplasm from the environment (Simon, Dickey, & Reece, 2019). One of its...
There are two basic types of cells which are prokaryotic and eukaryotic ones. Every form has its own unique differences that differentiate it from another one. The first critical element that distinguishes these two types is the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells include it surrounded by an envelope made of two membranes...
DNA is a nucleic acid that contains the genotype of an individual and transmits information by inheritance through self-reproducing. RNA is a ribonucleic acid with monomers called nucleotides. There are some similarities and differences in the structure and functions of DNA and RNA. The main difference is that the helix...
Thin ice appears in the shallow depth when sub-zero temperatures are established on the coast of lakes and reservoirs. According to Huang et al. (2019), the water cools and freezes in deeper places with frost increasing. The process goes from the shores of the reservoir to the center. An aqueous...
The relationship between the primary structure and function of the protein is given genetically and allows organisms of the same species to maintain a consistent set of proteins. However, the proteins of living organisms that perform the same function are not identical in their primary structure. The flow of information...
All living organisms share a standard set of characteristics. Reproduction helps to preserve and increase the number of species of a certain type. Under particular conditions, new plants appear from seeds and offsprings in animals. The growth and development of organism traits occur on the basis of inheritance or genetic...
Biological oxygen demand (BOD), also known as biochemical oxygen demand, refers to the degree of dissolved oxygen that aerobic organisms require to decompose organic matter available in a specific water sample at a given temperature over a set duration. One of the causes of BOD is poor treatment of wastewater,...
The first error associated with the research linking brain structure to psychological functions relates to the idea that specific brain parts cause certain psychological functions. This is problematic because many different parts play various roles in specific psychological functions regardless of what “lights up” during MRI studies. Therefore, the perfect...
Diminishing returns is a term used in reference to a reduction in a factor of production and the associated reduction in its marginal production even as the factor in question increases. According to Colander, this statement is true because it reaches a point of efficiency where all factors of production...
All I know about aging in general and the aging of the brain, in particular, supports the first theory. With aging, reaction time slows down, and intelligence may decline significantly (although there is still a chance that it will be steady for the whole lifespan). It is explained by the...
It should be noted that the concept of frailty had originated from the works of biogerontologists, but it gained increasing importance in recent decades due to its significance for more broad issues related to aging. In general, it is possible to characterize frailty in the following way: it is a...
a. Monocytes are powerful phagocytes The cellular organelles that must be present in abundance for this function are phagosomes. Phagosomes work by forming a membrane that engulfs the foreign object to be phagocytosed. The resultant phagosome fuses with lysosomes that contain digestive enzymes, which finally digest the foreign body and...
No red blood cells were seen under the microscope when a drop of blood was placed in distilled water. This observation can be explained by the fact that distilled water is a hypotonic solution with respect to the inside of the red blood cells. Therefore, the cells absorbed water via...
Intra-organ communication is necessary for the growth and development of organs. Biochemical signalling is involved in communication in the heart through molecules such as BMPs, Wnts, FGFs. Conversely, cell-to-cell communication occurs through the Ephrin, Notch, or Neuregulin/ErbB2 pathways. However, the mode of communication that synchronizes the growth of the endocardium...
Production ESCs are formed from a human embryo using the undifferentiated internal mass of cells. In contrast, IPSCs are produced from the reprogramming of different types of somatic cell types from diverse animal species.Both types of stem cells are pluripotent, meaning that they can differentiate into products of the three...
Environmental signals constitute tissue activities that regulate stem cell activity. Epidermal injury is the key environmental signal. Bulge cells act quickly after injuries to the epidermis by producing short-lived cells that move to the center of the lesion. This process promotes healing. Intrinsic signals include a protein-rich diet, which promotes...
The vertebrate eye originates from the frontal neural plate, the ectoderm of the head surface and mesenchyme drawn from the neural crest. There is a need for proper synchronization of ocular tissues to guarantee the formation of a functional eye. The frontal neural plate gives rise to the single central...
The three axes of limb development are proximodistal, dorsoventral and anteroposterior. The proximodistal axis phase refers to the development of the limb from its tip to where it connects to the body. The apical ectodermal ridge (AER) is first formed at the region where FGF10 (fibroblast growth factor 10), which...
A morphogen is a signalling substance that influences the arrangement of tissue development in a process known as morphogenesis. Morphogens act directly on cells to bring about a characteristic shift in their development. However, they act at a distance from their source of production. The magnitude of their effect is...
To change his mindset, an older man needs to look at the situation from a different perspective. The man might tell himself that although he is not ready for the test yet, reading and preparing for it will certainly increase his chance of passing. It is very important to stop...
The process of conception is a highly regulated and intricate topic, which makes it more interesting to explore and study. Ovum fertilization is carried out in the fallopian tube. The egg is surrounded by many sperm cells, each of which wants to penetrate it, but only one succeeds. In this...
The subcortical regions involved in muscle control and movement are the basal ganglia and the cerebellum, which are connected to the thalamus. The main function of the latter is to relay information.
The areas of the brain considered the cortical motor circuit are the primary motor cortex, Premotor area (PMA), which guides body movements through linking sensory information, and by controlling the muscles which are nearest to the body’s major axis and the supplementary motor area (SMA), which is involved in the...
A high-velocity musculoskeletal movement such as tennis serves or boxing punch requires reciprocal coordination of agonistic and antagonistic muscles. It is produced when the body parts are not able to execute the right action in response to the neurological command.
The four pathways through which the brain communicates with muscles are the neurons, synapses, dendrites, and central nervous system—these form neuro-pathways which produce electrical and chemical stimuli.
The neuromuscular junction is the region of contact connecting the ends of myelinated nerves and a skeletal muscle fiber. The body has close to over 600 skeletal muscles of various kinds, and each comprises numerous muscle fibers. The length of the skeletal muscle ranges from a few millimeters to some...
Ecosystem Service is referred to as the combination of economic, ecological, as well as social factors needed to sustain and improve the quality of the environment in order to make it best address the prevailing as well as future needs. For instance, the ecosystem services provided in the Pacific Northwest...
Riparian Zones should mainly be restored as they are habitats for flora, fauna, and aquatic organisms. Moreover, the zones are known to prevent erosion and to protect the quality of water. During this process, it is vital to consider our understanding of riparian zone processes and the causes of the...
The recent environmental degradation that is experienced around the Pacific Northwest can be attributed to the change of swimming behavior of the salmons, which has negatively affected the fishing industry. In addition, this has also caused a reduction in the size of their population.
The climate in central Oregon has dramatically changed over the years. This has mainly been attributed to increased human activity around the region that has to lead to global warming and a reduction of rainfall. As a result, the hardwood trees are mainly restricted to the areas near the streams....
During the past millennium in the Willamette Valley, the fire regimes were mostly influenced by both anthropogenic and natural causes. Human-set fires were transformed by regional climate unpredictability during the medieval climate anomaly as well as the Little Ice Age and mostly left the land bear. The reduction of the...
a. A forest (or ecosystem) is healthy when it’s biotic, and abiotic aspects do not hamper the forest’s management objectives at any given time. b. Biotic features and abiotic features. c. An estuary is an example of an ecosystem. Its abiotic features include water and rocks, while its biotic aspect...
Destroying the vegetation can lead to the extinction of salmonids’ right habitat as no streams will emanate from the mountains to the estuaries which form their habitats. The destruction of the vegetation can also cause a breakdown of the ecological chain of the population. Salmon feeds on certain vegetations that...
a. As compared to 150 years ago, the landscape of the Coburg Hills currently has a denser forested area. b. Today, the most common tree species around the Willamette Valley are the Pseudotsuga menzieshi. c. The less abundant tree species are Arbutus menziesi and Quercus garryana. d. There are fewer...
a. The trees are mostly characterized by needle-like leaves. The leaves are made in such form in order to reduce the surface area exposed to sunlight. A small surface area helps to prevent excessive evaporation. The trees are usually very large, providing a buffer against environmental stress.The trees usually have...
Mary Anne Warren agrees with the premise that rivers and mountains have certain intrinsic value since they are important elements of the existing bio-system. They can be critical for the sustainability of various living beings, including humans. The author does not accept the idea that it is possible to speak...
Overall, the animal rights to freedom and life are much weaker in comparison with the rights of human beings. In particular, it may be necessary to take the lives of animals, provided that this step can serve the interests of human beings, especially the protection of people’s lives. This argument...
Sentient non-human animals are supposed to have certain moral rights because they have the capacity to distinguish pleasure and pain. Moreover, they have the tendency to avoid painful experiences. In this case, the capacity to suffer is the main reason why a living being should be protected from harm. So,...
The preparation for the forum about the issue of genome editing requires one to consider the topic from different angles. First of all, it is vital to address the health-related consequences of the sex selection procedure. According to Kang et al., CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) editing procedure,...
Negative stereotypes, such as people becoming less intelligent with age, can affect the memory capacities of the elderly. That is due to numerous factors that affect people on a psychological and sociocultural level. First of all, the stereotype threat changes the self-esteem of the adults, and because of that, they...
Working memory is significantly affected by the age-related changes that an organism experiences during the lifetime. It is known that the working memory of adults and children differs substantially. For example, the ability to learn new languages for younger individuals is better compared to the elderly. That is due to...