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Skinner’s theory was based on the view that human behavior is dependent on the quality of consequences that follow. The controversy of the psychologist’s theory is related to Skinner’s simplistic approach to understanding the roots and causes of such a complex process as forming of behavior. Although the theorist acknowledged...
The first part of the text of Plato’s Euthyphro is related to the primitive explanations of Euthyphro. In the second part, Socrates misleads the hero with his questions, and in the third, he gives an answer, explaining the difference between the concepts.
Philosophy refers to the quest for knowledge, knowledge, and truth in its expansive sagacity. Nevertheless, in Greek, the term itself implies “love of understanding.” Individuals contemplate philosophy whenever they cogitate on profound, central issues about reality and themselves, the precincts of human understanding, their ideals, and the drive of life....
I consider myself philosophical, following my ability to stay thoughtful and detached in case of any setback that is threatening my efforts to lead quality and sustainable lifestyles. The research of how humans think through difficulties is more precisely the field of philosophy in modern days. Ancient thinkers have various...
Plato was the first to introduce metaphysical dualism: from his point of view, the world can be divided into two (duo) parts – the world of constancy and the world of constant change. The world of change is the physical world as we perceive it with our senses (material). We...
Two definitions of “pious” and “piety” are given. The first asserts that what is kind to the gods is pious, what is God-hating is piety. The second one comes from Socrates and says that pious obliges people – causes them to love. The piety is broader than the pious –...
Socrates does not agree with the definitions of piety and impiety given by Euthyphro. He does this by leading questions that lead the hero’s reasoning to a dead end. The solution of the problem that follows from Socrates’ reasoning differs from the definitions of Euthyphro. So, he claims that gods...
Reality constitutes all there is, known and unknown, both as a unified system and a combination of separate parts. It cannot be truly perceived in its entirety, since the inability to fully comprehend all of the existence is a part of the concept itself. The philosophical studies of mind and...
Socrates defines knowledge as the absolute truth, therefore implying that it is objective. I disagree, sine I do not believe that a person may have an access to the absolute truth in the first place. Every person’s view of the world, even when based on facts, is innately subjective to...
I find this framework to be illustrative and very focused on the precision and categorization that may occur when discussing reality. By separating perception into material, formal, efficient and final a scholar gives themselves tools to engage with mutually exclusive or internally contradictory events. As multiple things can be true...
I think that it cannot be true in the most literal sense, with the brain being ultimately an organ within the body. At the same time, the consciousness, personality and other non-tangible unique things are definitely varying from a person to a person, and are not dependenton their bodies. Overall,...
I am unsure if I have a personal theory of reality yet, but I would say that I lean towards emphasizing subjectivity. One cannot ever be objective and interact with absolute truths outside of a limited number of mathematical laws. By accepting this fact, a person opens their mind to...
Chrematistics means the acquisition of wealth in excess of a healthy level of human need. Aristotle contrasted Chrematistics – economics as a purposeful activity to create the goods necessary for the natural needs of man. At the same time, Aristotle saw the role of the economy in meeting urgent needs...
The “just price” was introduced to form fairness. Consequently, a price that is not low or high is a fair price. The price that was set to confuse and deceive the buyer is not a “just” price. A “just” price is one that will satisfy both buyer and seller.
Stoics’ and Epicureans’ concepts focus on self-realization and self-satisfaction. Cynics believe that the purpose of life is to live in harmony with nature, rejecting the generally accepted desire for wealth. The Epicureans are in search of sensual pleasure, while the Stoics are in search of knowledge and honesty, which “is...
There is no balance; either one chooses to keep the status quo or make changes to the way one farms or fishes. It is a slow change that one has to look at and not a balance. However, if one farm and fish ethically and sustainably, the fish and animals...
These are questions that Max Weber, one of the founding fathers of sociology would ask. He thought of sociology as a science of social action. Weber believed that understanding why people do the things they do is the basic building-block of sociology, a concept he termed Verstehen. He believed that...
Like any other philosophical theory, Plato’s theory of knowledge as recollection cannot be considered either wrong or right. He distinguished four degrees of knowledge such as the apprehension of pure sense images, the perceptive knowledge of sensible objects, mathematical knowledge, and philosophical knowledges. Furthermore, there are two classes such as...
Functionalism is a theory of consciousness, according to which mental states are determined not by their internal structure but by their roles as an integral part of a particular system. For example, from the perspective of functionalism, being in pain means being in a specific functional state. Thus, to feel...
It is safe to say that Aristotle’s contribution to philosophy is impossible to measure fully even today. He had a significant impact on many of his contemporaries and students, including Alexander the Great. Moreover, his legacy continues to inspire thinkers over two thousand years later. It is primarily thanks to...
The new thinking of Greek philosophers emphasized rationality over traditionally held beliefs. The new perspective did not disregard religion. Rather it introduced a new of perceiving religion based more on logic. The new paradigm was characterized by a strong focus on science and intelligence. Therefore, it can be attributed to...
At first glance, it might seem that traditionalism belongs to the category of sensitive historical phenomena firmly associated with antiquity. Thus, as a rule, when individuals reflect on tradition, the mind directs the flow of thoughts toward past experiences and events. As a consequence, an erroneous belief may be created...
Plato believed in the world of forms, or perfect ideas, that are located outside of the physical world. As a matter of fact, they do not exist as material objects that can be touched. Therefore, it is an illusionary world that is beyond people’s grasp. I do not think that...
In the understanding of Aristotle, eudaimonia or happiness is a long-standing condition and way of life, which is aimed at achieving the self-sufficiency of a person and human relations. For example, Aristotle argues that one who is happy living in accordance with virtue and is sufficiently equipped with external goods...
In Aristotle’s view, enjoyment, money, and honor are not the highest good because they are not the ultimate goal. For example, Aristotle says that virtue is a greater good than honor because people want to be honored for their achievements or positive traits. In addition, Aristotle explains that honor is...
According to Russel, the value of philosophy lies in the questions themselves and not in the answers that can be found to various problems. While I agree with Russell’s point of view, I also see the value of philosophy in the freedom it provides to people’s ideas and interpretations of...
For me, of the five classical branches of philosophy, ethics is the most interesting. It studies moral issues, including capital punishment, euthanasia, and abortion, and tries to find universal answers to the question of the morality of these concepts. However, it is evident that there is no definite answer because...
My first impression of the philosophy class is a mixture of admiration, a desire to dive into the search for answers to eternal questions, awe, and even fear of how difficult this journey will be. I think philosophy is one of the most complex and ambiguous classes. We will have...
In Nicomachean Ethics, book one, chapter five, Aristotle outlines three significant prominent lives; a life of enjoyment, a political life, and contemplative life. Aristotle considers people who regard happiness as a pleasure of life are slaves to their senses since this kind of life involves seeking approval from other people....
According to Aristotle, his definition of human nature is ‘The Rational Animal’ and his comprehension of the compelling account of the good. The ability to reason is the primary distinction between the nature of humans and other living things, and being rational is viewed as the absolute end of action...
According to Aristotle, a happy life involves long-life activities that bring the rational soul virtues. In addition to these virtues, Aristotle states that other goods that result in human satisfaction include wealth, power, and friends. Therefore, a lack of friends and family contributes greatly to jeopardizing a person’s happiness. An...
I agree with the account of human happiness provided by Aristotle since it is an observable truth that wealth does not bring absolute joy to humans. Unlike wealth, things that create long-term satisfaction and contentment are not buyable. Money allows people to do certain things and have fun, but long-lasting...
Aristotle’s three acquaintance systems include pleasure relationship, utility attachment, and virtue alliance. Though it is not clear how individuals ought to comprehend the difference between the three methods, the central idea argues that virtue, utility, and pleasure explain why these bond forms exist. A person may love a friend to...
Socrates argued that people could not describe a thing until they understood it. The definition of this is the response to “What is X?” questions. Socrates believed that one had to describe and understand something before knowing what it is. The famous Socratic definition was a response to the “X”...
Plato’s moral philosophy revolves around the virtue-driven eudemonistic idealization of ethics. According to him, happiness is the highest object of moral behavior and thoughts, while virtues are the necessary skills and confessions required to achieve it. Plato’s political philosophy was that conflicting ideas and interests shared by different sections of...
Plato’s theory of forms states that the physical world is actually not the real world, but the ultimate reality only exists beyond what we can see in the real world. Plato claims that there is the physical and the spiritual realm. The physical realm involves objects that interact with and...
With regard to memories experienced after receiving an organ for a donor, Hume would argue that the self exists as a result of recorded sensory impressions. Therefore, sensory objects play a critical role in forming the self, which becomes embedded in the body. Descartes would argue that the act of...
Veritistic epistemology refers to the evaluation of specific practices by assessing their capacity to contribute to knowledge. It relates to Descartes’ theories in that all issues are first considered false before being subjected to analysis. Descartes applies the method of doubt to evaluate his existence. While various aspects of life...
According to Descartes, the idea of God differs from that of a chair because the former is an infinite being that placed the idea of his existence in a finite being, meaning God exists. Locke doubts God’s existence since he is incapable of sensing him.
Hume believed that impressions are vivid perceptions of the mind’s expressions while ideas are reflections of impressions. Locke noted that sensations are the experiences gained from sensory stimulation, while reflections are thought processes in one’s mind. While both theories define the origin of ideas, Locke includes aspects of the senses...
Rationalism is the belief that reason supersedes experience as the basis of knowledge. In essence, reality has a logical structure, and a category of truths guides an intellect’s thinking. Empiricism is the idea that all knowledge is the result of the stimulation of one’s senses. Therefore, all concepts can be...
According to Locke, consciousness is inextricably linked to personal identity rather than the physical form. Therefore, people are not dependent on their bodies, and they can exist in other bodies. Descartes would disagree because while he believed that the self is separate from the body, he did not state that...
The method of doubt encourages individuals to doubt the truth regarding everything and realize that indubitable ideas qualify as pieces of knowledge. I believe it is an effective way of understanding truths because doubt prompts inquiry which is essential for a comprehensive review of an idea’s multifaceted elements.
Descartes posits that the marked ice in a freezer can only be identified by depending on absolute certainty. Therefore, the individual must be capable of deducing that the ice is the result of frozen water. Locke proposes that there is no certainty in knowledge. Therefore, the identity of the ice...
Goldman would define money as an economic unit created to serve as a medium of exchange in an economic context. Money has no intrinsic value seeing as its worth is determined by the forces of supply and demand. Society depends on transactions that assign value to money, making it a...
The difference between modernism and postmodernism is that these theories treat the progress and rationality of the world differently. In particular, the modernists regard that they can find the methods to explain how the world is constructed by applying the knowledge about humans. Consequently, they aspire to learn the “true...
Russell’s view on common sense and prejudice is that the aforementioned notions are often conceived in the absence of concrete evidence. In order to avoid falling victim to prejudice, he proposes that topics must be evaluated from all sides using philosophical principles in order to gain a better perspective. Socrates...
It is vital to note that, unlike sophists, Socrates advocated for the promotion of arguments that ask important questions that serve to guide conclusions or a better understanding of the matter under review. Sophists promote arguments with no regard for the truth provided they achieve their goals. Russell views philosophy...
The Oracle of Delphi meant that Socrates was filled with wisdom because he had embraced his inability to know everything. Both Russell and Socrates prefer to question ideas rather than assess issues superficially. Sophists were regarded as individuals who were skilled at arguing in support of any side of an...
Socrates’ insistence on being referred to as “philo-sophoi” was based on his insistence on arguing for the truth. He was unjustly accused, seeing as he supported the dissemination of truth. He addressed ethical issues by questioning what others considered the truth and by analyzing concepts such as piety and virtue....
The main question that the piece raises is «What is knowledge?». Nelsen mentioned that the experiment created a dispute on whether the knowledge about a specific mental state is enough to fully understand it even without any experience of the mental state itself. Thus, it is possible to ask whether...
Political philosophy is one of the primary subjects in the works of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the terms “the general will” and “the will of all” should also be interpreted in the legislative context. The philosopher regards that the primary purpose of the government should be aligned with the general will....
The subjects of femininity, feminism, love, and how to be a woman persist and are central in the works of Simone de Beauvoir. The French philosopher also continually tackles the topic of marriage and its role in the relationship of men and women. At the present time, the concept of...
The most important ideology in the U.S. is “American individualism,” as it emphasizes the moral value of the individual. President Hoover’s cultivated the philosophy and a spirit of rugged individualism. It prevents unnecessary government intervention in the daily lives of Americans. It is an essential approach to foster the personal...
The primary qualities of an object do not depend on the existence or opinions of an observer. For example, the Grand Canyon existed long before humanity and, though it has changed over time, as all things do, has generally maintained its shape. Each of its sections has a specific depth...
The idea that the observable reality is merely a dream has been a common point of discussion among scholars since the conception of philosophical thought. According to Descartes, discerning a dream from reality is virtually impossible due to the lack of credibility that an individual should lend to his or...
Berkeley’s idealism, particularly the argument that material substance does not exist, appears to be easily refutable by doing a simple act of interacting with material objects. However, according to Berkeley, the specified action does not defy his argument since, in his interpretation, the act of perception implies a very subjective,...
Friedrich Nietzsche believed that the Christian church transvaluates the natural human instincts by assigning supposed divine intention to rules such as “You shall not kill.” He argued that Christian prophets usurped the concepts of morality and ethics to further their interests and assigned additional fake meanings to what was previously...
The philosophical method, or philosophical methodology, is a study of how philosophy is done, and a way in which philosophers tend to address philosophical questions. There is more than one way used by philosophers to answer those questions. The main elements of philosophical methods include asking questions that involve methodic...
The attitude addressed by Socrates in the given statement may seem too radical and subjective to some people nowadays. Although being obsessed with money and constantly wishing to gain more is still seen as a vice, the fact of having large amounts of money does not make someone a bad...
According to the utilitarian ethics of Bentham and Mill, an action is considered moral when it produces happiness and joy and immoral when it produces unhappiness or pain. The philosophers believed that an individual should choose an action that would lead to the greatest contentment for the biggest number of...
Kant believed that people would act morally if they followed their goodwill. Goodwill is the only way to be moral, according to the philosopher. The concept of goodwill means that something is universally good in every instance. For example, if a person finds a purse and returns it to the...
Aristotle believed that people could achieve happiness only if they developed their virtues. The philosopher distinguished eleven main virtues, including courage and wittiness. However, it was not enough just to cultivate these virtues. A person should try to attain the golden mean between extremes of excess and deficiency. For example,...
The subject of Philosophy of Nature is natural things and changeable beings that exist in matter and are defined by matter; fire, an orange, and a cat are examples of natural things because they cannot live without matter that explains their essence. Philosophy of Nature helps us to understand how...
Firstly, it could be said that Gödel’s Theorem provides a concept of truth, as it mentions that some theories are not eligible to be entirely complete and reliable. It raised attention to the logical matter in philosophy. It could be said that this theorem also questions the relevance of the...
According to existentialists, all people are free to decide how to act and what choices to make in their lives. Different philosophers approached moral philosophy differently, but each of them believed that human existence was of the highest value. The most interesting approach to moral philosophy is that of Simone...
The term philosophy originates from the Greek word philos, which denotes fondness, and the word sophos which means understanding. In literal terms, philosophy refers to an individual’s passion for wisdom. According to Sober, philosophy refers to the study of the subsistence, understanding, and realism of objects. It deploys the supremacy...
Plato and Aristotle have diverse speculations concerning the soul and body. Plato believes that the body and the soul are separate entities within a person. Aristotle upholds a contrary opinion. Plato asserts that the soul is irrelevant and that it belongs to the ‘humanity of appearance’. Jackson confirms Plato’s belief...
Philosophy has many concepts that explain the nature of the world, human, and universal processes. At the same time, many theories are opposed to each other, since philosophers have different views on things that can be applied and appropriate from different perspectives. The ideas of physicalism and the Knowledge Argument...
Firstly, a student gets a general perception of a plethora of philosophical ideas. Moreover, it helps accept that views might vary due to the different mindsets. Furthermore, it changes one’s decision-making in a positive direction, as philosophy provides a logical rationale and reasoning for various actions, dogmas, and social phenomena.
Anaximander’s views imply that the mist and fire are essentialities of the world formation, where the mist is central, and fire is external. In my opinion, his views are rather logical, as no knowledge about the structure of the universe was present in the past. Furthermore, the philosopher gives a...
Pythagoras’ views were rather dissimilar to the thoughts of the other philosophers, as he saw a connection between numbers and nature. In my opinion, his theory is rather abstract. However, he was able to discover novelty in objects and see the world from a numerical perspective. It helped change the...
Rationalism implies that “reason is a sole or primary source of knowledge”. In turn, empiricism supports a different point, as it implies that knowledge could be acquired with the help of feelings and senses. It could be said that a primary difference is the areas of getting knowledge, as one...
Saul Kripke clearly differentiates A priori and A posteriori knowledge, as A priori is always correct and does not depend on external conditions. In turn, A posteriori is acquired with the help of an experiment. In conclusion, it could be said that A priori is always true, and A posteriori...
It could be said that the pragmatic theory of truth is logical and based on a rational conclusion. In this case, the definition or assumption is considered right if it can be implemented and acts in reality. In turn, correspondence truth focuses on ‘correspondence’ of phenomena or knowledge with the...
For Plato, the definitions of knowledge, tradition, and true beliefs were critical since men’s philosophical intentions were to study the world in depth. Plato commented that people often confuse these categories and live in ignorance, substituting fundamental knowledge for traditional beliefs. Thus, the deliberate classification of the three aspects of...
Integrating the ideas of traditional beliefs and definitions of courage, it is pertinent to note causal connections with Plato’s Dialogues. In particular, this concerns the Laches, in which two generals discuss the nature of courage and bravery. First of all, according to Plato, it should be recalled that traditional faith...
Categories of philosophical doctrine describe many components of social being, among which tradition occupies a special place. The attitude toward traditional beliefs and faiths forms an integral part of Plato’s philosophy. From extant writings, it is inevitable that Plato was not a supporter of direct traditionalism, preferring to it an...
Finding the connection between knowledge and true opinion is an essential part of Socrates’ philosophy. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that a thorough knowledge of Socrates’ ideals and the truth is impossible because of the small number of primary sources which have preserved the philosopher’s views. Most of the worldviews...
The identification of the core of courage was essential to the philosophy of Socrates and Plato. Socrates never explicitly stated his thoughts on any philosophical category but used his own maieutic techniques to bring his interlocutor to a deep understanding of the knowledge under discussion. Thus, one of Plato’s most...
Hospers claims that ‘developing virtues is not an accuse of permitting disasters.’ It means that ‘moral urgency’ and ‘virtue-building,’ which can be developed by creating barriers and difficulties for people, can not be achieved by doing evil to them because this will ruin every meaning of virtue and morality.
Hospers claims that, however, the pain is something necessary to feel relief, it does not mean that physician should arbitrarily cause pain in this patient. If applied to God, it means that the notions of good and just run in great contradiction to conscious initiating of the evil. If God...
Hospers claims that being a free person does not necessarily be free to commit evil things. Developing the dialogue between two advocates of the opposite viewpoints, Hospers shows that there exist certain general limitations for the human people. For instance, nobody would object that people are not free to fly...
As Hospers claims, this vision is contradictory to the human notions of morality. If we consider all evil in our eyes to be good in God’s eyes, it would mean, according to Hospers, that we should change our own notions of morality and behave correspondingly to the new morality. This...
Everything that we know is known to our minds. If, for instance, we have an impression of a tree ten feet away, the impression of both the tree and the ten feet are in our minds or consciousness, which in itself does not occupy any space or have any size....
The potter and clay theory comprises no injustice because the center of man’s being is not the ego but the self and that the self is the incarnation, the deliberate self-limitation of the infinite. In this situation, the conscious spirit in the vessels who experience wrath and mercy is ultimately...
The metaphysical language suggests that the infinitive neither wills imagines, acts, nor causes anything. Negative language about a creative action of the infinitive must be understood in the same way as negative language about its being and nature. In Christianity, selflessness is the means by which the infinitive engenders the...
Man’s own identity is so mysterious to the external world. At times as human beings, we have had to ask ourselves a weird question or a riddle of who we would be if our parents had not married or married someone else. Perhaps, death is the worst fascinating of these...
Stace’s article entitled The Philosophy of Mysticism is concerned with answering the question of whether mystics are empowered to search out reasons why humans behave this or that way, whether mystics have a message for mankind and whether they have a direct experience of something beyond the world of space...
Mystics often describe their experiences as being “outside space and outside time.” Stace argues that since the mystical experience is undifferentiated, it has nothing to do with space and time. Since it is not temporal, it is eternal. The mystic thus believes that he/she is experiencing the eternal, and in...
The author states that to encourage readers to differentiate between the experience itself and the intellect’s interpretation of the fact. The experience itself is certain and cannot be doubted, whereas the intellect’s interpretation can always be doubted and is at most only a probable opinion. Explaining this difference is important...
According to Stace, there exists an argument for the objectivity of the mystic’s experience which relies not merely on his own inward experience but on independent and outside checking: one mystic’s experience is supported by the evidence of other mystics all over the world, in all ages, countries, and cultures....
When Stace considers R. M. Bucke’s suggestion for differentiating if (or when) an event or thing has objective reality, he claims that the agreement of mystics of all over the world about the essentials of their experience is not sufficient to prove the objectivity of the experience. Stace’s position is...
The criterion that Stace offers of the objectivity of any experience is orderliness, by which he means obedience to the laws of nature. An experience is objective if it fits the one order of events past and future that constitutes the regular sequence of causes and effects called nature. The...
To apply Stace’s criterion of objectivity to mystical experience to show it objectively, the experience needs to have orderly patterns of events. There should be a multiplicity of events within the mystical experience to constitute an objective order. As there is no multiplicity of events within mystical experience but only...
Still, the author beware skeptics of jumping to a conclusion. He says: “let not the skeptic too hastily exult,” as mystical experience can neither be objective nor subjective. The subjective is disorderly; it consists in experiencing events that infringe the laws of nature. Mystical experience is a pure undifferentiated unity;...
The mystical consciousness is trans-subjective. The author uses the Leibnezean principle of the identity of indiscernibles to support this statement. Stace supposes two persons, A and B, to expel all empirical content from their minds so that to reach the unity of pure consciousness. By the mentioned principle, pure ego...
The concept of space and time denotes the infinite as anything that expands outwards forever and at times that which contracts inwards forever. The concept also denotes “The Infinite” in terms of thought and calling it the size less or spaceless or the timeless. By having no size with regard...
Involution is the supreme self that deliberately forgets and lays aside its omnipresence and identifies itself with the finite point of view.Evolution is the true awareness of its true identity within the finite order, not forsaking it as a person but using it as an instrument of expression.Ego does not...
The question “I can attain metaphysical knowledge” is inappropriate according to Watts because this knowledge is internal, the personal ego that gives this knowledge. The ego tries to drag itself up to the state of divinity by asceticism, penance on oneself. When the ego surrenders and gives up the finding...