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Is Descartes’ mind-body dualism the best philosophy of human reality? Take a stand for or against Cartesian Dualism & select an opponent, either Darwinian Monism or Sartrean Nihilism. Consider Descartes’s arguments. Briefly present Descartes’ arguments for metaphysical dualism. Make an argument for/against Descartes’s dualism. Consider the arguments made by the...
Explore in-depth an idea (e.g., liberty or democracy), theme (e.g., development of natural law, natural right, or liberalism), or philosopher’s writings (e.g., John Locke’s Second Treatise on Government) of your choice. Engaging primary sources is highly recommended. Do not rely exclusively on secondary commentary. However, you must present a topic...
Who was Voltaire? What would you write in a brief biography of him for the philosophical dictionary? What was Voltaire’s personal motto? What did it mean? Who are some of the “patriarchs” that Voltaire meets on his journey? Why are they sad? Who is the last person he meets? What...
According to William James, “I” is both the subject and the object of self-соgnition. Among the three ways of knowing oneself, introspection should be mentioned as the closest mechanism to the one described by William James. In introspection, the cognizable “Me” is the complex of thoughts, feelings, images, and emotions...
Belief systems significantly influence a state’s political and social development, especially in Asian countries. The Chinese, for instance, believed in cosmic unity and the divinity of the emperor who held the mandate of heaven. It led to the increased control and power of the ruler. In general, the earliest belief...
Reproduction occurs as a result of fertilization, which is a natural and mindless process in mammals that allows them to continue to exist. The unity between humans is way more complex and involves different layers. The co-existence of the physical and the spiritual, as well as the intent and the...
Discuss how to write the teaching philosophy statement. The teaching philosophy is written in a narrative format and is replete with concrete examples which breathe life into the author’s values. While there is no specific format, the writing must contain the following elements: Introduction – a brief statement about who you...
How would you write a research paper on some topic related to political theory? Begin with a broad topic and narrow it down to a specific research question you would like to answer. Pick a certain aspect of a theorist’s writings and apply it to a modern issue. Below are...
Penny Phang states, “When you were born into this life, you probably learned that what you see in front of you is “reality.” Do you agree with this statement? To answer the question, think of the next controversies. What is reality and what is not? Is one person’s reality the...
Analyze Descartes’ cosmological argument regarding God’s existence. Evaluate the method of inquiry used by Descartes in his Meditations. Which conclusions does he end up defending by following this method? Defend a position interpreting one of his views: is he successful? Defend a position for/against Descartes’ Cosmological argument for the existence...
Analyze Kant’s Third Critique: the Critique of the Power of Judgment. How does Kant view the aesthetics of poetry? Is poetry beautiful for Kant? What kinds of poetry? What are the forms/contents of poetry based on Kantian theory? How do we appreciate poetry’s beauty without its content (the conceptual meaning...
Discuss the question: What is genius for Kant? How can one genius teach another genius – without turning him or her into an imitator? (See Critique of the Power of Judgment by Kant). Do you think Kant is right to locate the source of art in (what he calls) genius?...
Discuss the origin and nature of Descartes’ first principle of philosophy. Explain the origin and nature of Descartes’ first principle of philosophy, “I think; therefore I am.” By origin, it meant how he arrived at the principle. Compare and contrast this principle to the characterization of thinking. Identify the logical...
Discuss Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave”. The opposition between philosophical life and daily life (bios) is perhaps nowhere more powerfully figured than in the “Allegory of the Cave” from Plato’s “Republic”. Demonstrate your understanding by applying the terms and concepts from the lesson and readings to your analysis of the...
In Cohen’s view, what is the true benefit of philosophical or academic argumentation? Watch Cohen’s video “For argument’s sake”. Explain how we can go beyond argument as war, proof, or performance in academic discourse, or any discourse, in a spirit of collaboration rather than contention. How can we overcome the...
Use either David Foster Wallace or George Orwell to analyze the political components of one of the analytic philosophy texts. First, explain the relevant features of Wallace/Orwell that matter for your analysis (for a general audience). Next, give a brief overview of the point and motivation of the analytic philosophy...
According to Nietzsche, forgetting is essential to living well. I agree with this statement because dwelling on troubles, living with grievances, and relying on irritation and anger brings negativity into life, which can destroy an individual, society, and the state. Indeed, having memorized everything, we would not have survived since...
Nietzsche asserts that animals and humans feel differently about time. Animals are not worried about the past and the future; they live only in the present. That is why they have no history because history connects with the past. In turn, people have a history associated with the past, and...
Freedom became one of the most discussed topics in Jean-Paul Sartre’s masterpiece as he tried to explain to the reader that success does not always achieve freedom. It is all about the inner feelings of the world and personal acceptance. “Anguish” plays an important role in freedom as it is...
The author presented the meaning of “existentialism” as a strong bond between essence and existence to show the reader that by existing, we give meaning to our lives. The term was defined as “existence precedes essence,” and every person is liable to create their ways of existence. This way of...
Jean-Paul Sartre explains the fine line between “existence” and “essence” and presents that existence usually precedes essence. While “essence” relates to the meaning of humanness and being wise to the surrounding, the term “existence” stands for the idea that it is real only when it is perceived by the human...
In a dream, it seems to people that they have perceptions corresponding to wakefulness. Thus, there are no clear criteria that would make it possible to distinguish dream perceptions from actual perceptions. Descartes’ argument about dreams is the possibility of doubt about the principles of mathematics, logic, and other exact...
Descartes suggests using doubt as a research method. Its meaning is as follows: to create a solid foundation for a new philosophy, it is necessary to doubt everything. Accordingly, that which cannot be doubted is the basis of knowledge and science. The experience of doubt concerns anything possible, such as...
Descartes’s building metaphor is associated with the foundation of knowledge. Just as building construction involves laying a solid foundation and gradually building walls, so does the development of knowledge. According to Descartes, the “first philosophy” is metaphysics. Thus, metaphysics is a solid foundation of knowledge on which principles and theories...
The third step is to doubt that everything around is a dream and not reality. The fourth step concerns doubting divine principles. However, since God is good, the fifth step implies the existence of a cunning, deceitful, and powerful “evil genius” who tries to deceive.
According to Descartes, an evil genius is a creature that eternally deceives a person. The purpose of creating this phenomenon is to heighten doubt. What a person is not sure of is taken as false, and an evil genius helps a person to part with prejudices, outdated opinions, and unfounded...
The principle ‘I think therefore I am’ makes consciousness more reliable than matter and one’s thinking (for oneself) more reliable than other people’s thinking. Although there is a tendency towards subjectivity in this position, Descartes came to a firm truth: the existence of the ‘I’ was proved by inference from...
Machiavelli believed that the actions of the “Prince”, as cruel as they might be, would be justified if they demonstrated nobility and power. Any leader may act immorally if the results are beneficial to themselves and the nation-state. Furthermore, Machiavelli emphasized the necessity of a united nation with a strong...
The Divided Line theory is a symbolic explanation of reality and the distinction between its two powers, namely the intellectual and visible worlds. Using this theory, Plato emphasizes the difference between knowledge and opinion. To explain the Divided Line theory, one should draw an imagined line and divide it into...
The Allegory of the Cave is a story used by Plato to exemplify and vividly demonstrate an abstract notion that the philosopher aimed to explain. The purpose of this story is to indicate that the lack of education is a limiting factor that alters one’s belief about the world. Without...
It is necessary to explain the meaning of Socrates’ famous phrase, “to know that you do not know. The ancient Greeks explained wisdom with this expression, and it is not difficult to determine. A person can be wise only when he strives to develop, and knowledge is the resource that...
Concerning Aristotle, it is fair to say that Eudaimonia is the highest happiness a man can comprehend during his lifetime. The attainment of Eudaimonia becomes possible only through the endless choices of life, which can be complex; in so doing, benefits, whether economic, social, or spiritual, are achieved. Eudaimonia is...
As one of the most famous philosophers of all time, Socrates had a particular attitude to death, peculiar to the mythological perception of the world. In particular, the ancient Greeks argued that death is a fitting end to physical life for a good man, in which the soul as a...
There is no free will, Spinoza thinks. One must come to terms with their limitations and the way the world is and reach a kind of freedom by learning to love God and nature. Freedom also manifests itself in a person’s ability to free themselves from the tyranny of passions,...
Monads are what the physical objects in the world, in Leibniz’s eyes, are made of. These are simple and indivisible matters, which include both physical and mental aspects, interacting with one another while existing in a pre-established God harmony. Each monad possesses a reflection of the world. They seem to...
Descartes’ main problem was to justify his views on the external world using his rather narrow base about indubitable beliefs founded on the content of one’s mind. This is where the famous “Cogito Ergo Sum” – or “I think, therefore I exist” comes from. Descartes states that his certain knowledge...
In order to prove that a good God exists, Descartes must rely only on those beliefs he himself has defined as indubitable. His line of thinking is as follows: Descartes says that he finds the notion of a perfect being in his mind. The cause of this notion has to...
Whereas Descartes sets out to find epistemological foundations for knowledge, Spinoza seeks metaphysical connections. According to his perspective, the world is comprehensible, and nature can be seen as a rational thing. In exploring this assumption, one finds out that there is only one view that does not produce contradictions or...
According to Spinoza, God is an infinite being, and the only possibility for any substance to be such is to not have other substances to limit it. That is how he comes to the conclusion that both God and nature are one substance, and the world’s every feature is simply...
Following in the footsteps of his God/nature theory, Spinoza explains that a human being’s existence presents one with two attributes – of thought and of extension – in other words, mind, and body, which actually are one and the same. The concept of them being different and interacting with one...
There is at least one belief that Descartes finds indubitable. That is the belief that one thinks. Even if an allowance for an evil being is made, one still would have to be thinking of something to deceive them. An example of this would be forming a belief about the...
Descartes considers the things that one seems to know for certain by reason – for example, mathematical claims, like 2+2=4. When contemplating the ways one could be mistaken about this, he proposes that there might be a powerful demon who can trick one into perceiving 2+2=4 as an undeniable truth...
In his opinion, senses can deceive people sometimes – an example of that would be mistaking a stranger on the street for a friend or perceiving an oar as bent when it is in the water. Granted, one might say that these cases are diagnosable and mistaken appearances can be...
Method of doubt is Descartes’ attempt to define which knowledge can be considered rational. In order to determine that, he sets out to create a secure foundation of beliefs on which this rational replication of knowledge can be based. Descartes inspects all his beliefs by categories to find out whether...
Just Cause The just war tradition holds that aggression is unjustifiable and unjustly carried out in retaliation for aggression. Aggression is defined as the use or threat of force by one state against another’s political sovereignty or territorial integrity, such as America’s involvement in the Vietnam War. The apparent justification...
The occurrence of crises in the capitalistic world is viewed as an opportunity for change and further progress. Indeed, capitalism implies that monetary value might be asserted in any situation, which is why catastrophes should be viewed as sources of developmental inspiration. Indeed, the latest events associated with the outbreak...
A priori refers to knowledge that comes before any experience or independently from it, which is a concept started by Immanuel Kant. Kant distinguished between a priori and a posteriori (derived from experience) knowledge by pointing out the differences between necessary and contingent truth. The former refers to a truth...
Deontologists like Immanuel Kant believe in the existence of the universal good and bad and in the fact that the outcomes do not justify the means. Utilitarians, on the other hand, believe that the good depends on the outcome, prioritizing the consequential benefit of the majority.
The term “thinking tools” was first used by the great Greek philosopher Aristotle. He believed that slavery was a natural thing and that people were of two types-slaves and non-slaves. Some people, he said, were born slaves and should be so under all circumstances. Other people were born to manage...
The first perspective is a psychodynamic personality development theory. This theory was pioneered by Sigmund Freud, who assumed that personality is based on the three structural elements – id, ego, and superego. Those three elements coexist within a person, and the relationships between them and reality shape the personality. The...
According to Rousseau, morality is an intrinsic quality of every human being vital for living in communal societies. Moral men have a sense of moral duty and possess different categories of judgment. Besides, righteous men only include the ideals of self-preservation which allows them to address the most basic needs...
Virtue ethics is concerned with individuals’ characters acting, unlike the ethical responsibilities or consequences of specific actions. They are mainly based on Aristotle’s definition of virtuous individuals as people who possess ideal characters. The characters stem from internal inmate behaviors and must be developed to be stable. In the context...
Self-love is when people put themselves priority when doing something or when making a decision. Depending on the situation, it can either be lousy self-love or good. Good self-love is when people choose to do just, moderate, or do as the rules command. Positive self-love also ensures that one secures...
Aristotle thinks that a friendship between virtuous people and bad people is imperfect because each individual sees the other as a source of advantage for themselves. Imperfection also comes in because the company is based on the reasonable person’s character or the wrong person’s behavior because those different characters cannot...
Aristotle does not give a direct answer about a friendship between evil people. Bad people can be associates depending based on their relationship. A link between bad people can work if they found their company on Goodwill. Sometimes if their evil ways are mutual, they can have a perfect bond....
Skinner’s theory was based on the view that human behavior is dependent on the quality of consequences that follow. The controversy of the psychologist’s theory is related to Skinner’s simplistic approach to understanding the roots and causes of such a complex process as forming of behavior. Although the theorist acknowledged...
The first part of the text of Plato’s Euthyphro is related to the primitive explanations of Euthyphro. In the second part, Socrates misleads the hero with his questions, and in the third, he gives an answer, explaining the difference between the concepts.
Philosophy refers to the quest for knowledge, knowledge, and truth in its expansive sagacity. Nevertheless, in Greek, the term itself implies “love of understanding.” Individuals contemplate philosophy whenever they cogitate on profound, central issues about reality and themselves, the precincts of human understanding, their ideals, and the drive of life....
I consider myself philosophical, following my ability to stay thoughtful and detached in case of any setback that is threatening my efforts to lead quality and sustainable lifestyles. The research of how humans think through difficulties is more precisely the field of philosophy in modern days. Ancient thinkers have various...
Plato was the first to introduce metaphysical dualism: from his point of view, the world can be divided into two (duo) parts – the world of constancy and the world of constant change. The world of change is the physical world as we perceive it with our senses (material). We...
Two definitions of “pious” and “piety” are given. The first asserts that what is kind to the gods is pious, what is God-hating is piety. The second one comes from Socrates and says that pious obliges people – causes them to love. The piety is broader than the pious –...
Socrates does not agree with the definitions of piety and impiety given by Euthyphro. He does this by leading questions that lead the hero’s reasoning to a dead end. The solution of the problem that follows from Socrates’ reasoning differs from the definitions of Euthyphro. So, he claims that gods...
Reality constitutes all there is, known and unknown, both as a unified system and a combination of separate parts. It cannot be truly perceived in its entirety, since the inability to fully comprehend all of the existence is a part of the concept itself. The philosophical studies of mind and...
Socrates defines knowledge as the absolute truth, therefore implying that it is objective. I disagree, sine I do not believe that a person may have an access to the absolute truth in the first place. Every person’s view of the world, even when based on facts, is innately subjective to...
I find this framework to be illustrative and very focused on the precision and categorization that may occur when discussing reality. By separating perception into material, formal, efficient and final a scholar gives themselves tools to engage with mutually exclusive or internally contradictory events. As multiple things can be true...
I think that it cannot be true in the most literal sense, with the brain being ultimately an organ within the body. At the same time, the consciousness, personality and other non-tangible unique things are definitely varying from a person to a person, and are not dependenton their bodies. Overall,...
I am unsure if I have a personal theory of reality yet, but I would say that I lean towards emphasizing subjectivity. One cannot ever be objective and interact with absolute truths outside of a limited number of mathematical laws. By accepting this fact, a person opens their mind to...
Chrematistics means the acquisition of wealth in excess of a healthy level of human need. Aristotle contrasted Chrematistics – economics as a purposeful activity to create the goods necessary for the natural needs of man. At the same time, Aristotle saw the role of the economy in meeting urgent needs...
The “just price” was introduced to form fairness. Consequently, a price that is not low or high is a fair price. The price that was set to confuse and deceive the buyer is not a “just” price. A “just” price is one that will satisfy both buyer and seller.
Stoics’ and Epicureans’ concepts focus on self-realization and self-satisfaction. Cynics believe that the purpose of life is to live in harmony with nature, rejecting the generally accepted desire for wealth. The Epicureans are in search of sensual pleasure, while the Stoics are in search of knowledge and honesty, which “is...
There is no balance; either one chooses to keep the status quo or make changes to the way one farms or fishes. It is a slow change that one has to look at and not a balance. However, if one farm and fish ethically and sustainably, the fish and animals...
These are questions that Max Weber, one of the founding fathers of sociology would ask. He thought of sociology as a science of social action. Weber believed that understanding why people do the things they do is the basic building-block of sociology, a concept he termed Verstehen. He believed that...
Like any other philosophical theory, Plato’s theory of knowledge as recollection cannot be considered either wrong or right. He distinguished four degrees of knowledge such as the apprehension of pure sense images, the perceptive knowledge of sensible objects, mathematical knowledge, and philosophical knowledges. Furthermore, there are two classes such as...
Functionalism is a theory of consciousness, according to which mental states are determined not by their internal structure but by their roles as an integral part of a particular system. For example, from the perspective of functionalism, being in pain means being in a specific functional state. Thus, to feel...
It is safe to say that Aristotle’s contribution to philosophy is impossible to measure fully even today. He had a significant impact on many of his contemporaries and students, including Alexander the Great. Moreover, his legacy continues to inspire thinkers over two thousand years later. It is primarily thanks to...
The new thinking of Greek philosophers emphasized rationality over traditionally held beliefs. The new perspective did not disregard religion. Rather it introduced a new of perceiving religion based more on logic. The new paradigm was characterized by a strong focus on science and intelligence. Therefore, it can be attributed to...
At first glance, it might seem that traditionalism belongs to the category of sensitive historical phenomena firmly associated with antiquity. Thus, as a rule, when individuals reflect on tradition, the mind directs the flow of thoughts toward past experiences and events. As a consequence, an erroneous belief may be created...
Plato believed in the world of forms, or perfect ideas, that are located outside of the physical world. As a matter of fact, they do not exist as material objects that can be touched. Therefore, it is an illusionary world that is beyond people’s grasp. I do not think that...
In the understanding of Aristotle, eudaimonia or happiness is a long-standing condition and way of life, which is aimed at achieving the self-sufficiency of a person and human relations. For example, Aristotle argues that one who is happy living in accordance with virtue and is sufficiently equipped with external goods...
In Aristotle’s view, enjoyment, money, and honor are not the highest good because they are not the ultimate goal. For example, Aristotle says that virtue is a greater good than honor because people want to be honored for their achievements or positive traits. In addition, Aristotle explains that honor is...
According to Russel, the value of philosophy lies in the questions themselves and not in the answers that can be found to various problems. While I agree with Russell’s point of view, I also see the value of philosophy in the freedom it provides to people’s ideas and interpretations of...
For me, of the five classical branches of philosophy, ethics is the most interesting. It studies moral issues, including capital punishment, euthanasia, and abortion, and tries to find universal answers to the question of the morality of these concepts. However, it is evident that there is no definite answer because...
My first impression of the philosophy class is a mixture of admiration, a desire to dive into the search for answers to eternal questions, awe, and even fear of how difficult this journey will be. I think philosophy is one of the most complex and ambiguous classes. We will have...
In Nicomachean Ethics, book one, chapter five, Aristotle outlines three significant prominent lives; a life of enjoyment, a political life, and contemplative life. Aristotle considers people who regard happiness as a pleasure of life are slaves to their senses since this kind of life involves seeking approval from other people....
According to Aristotle, his definition of human nature is ‘The Rational Animal’ and his comprehension of the compelling account of the good. The ability to reason is the primary distinction between the nature of humans and other living things, and being rational is viewed as the absolute end of action...
According to Aristotle, a happy life involves long-life activities that bring the rational soul virtues. In addition to these virtues, Aristotle states that other goods that result in human satisfaction include wealth, power, and friends. Therefore, a lack of friends and family contributes greatly to jeopardizing a person’s happiness. An...
I agree with the account of human happiness provided by Aristotle since it is an observable truth that wealth does not bring absolute joy to humans. Unlike wealth, things that create long-term satisfaction and contentment are not buyable. Money allows people to do certain things and have fun, but long-lasting...
Aristotle’s three acquaintance systems include pleasure relationship, utility attachment, and virtue alliance. Though it is not clear how individuals ought to comprehend the difference between the three methods, the central idea argues that virtue, utility, and pleasure explain why these bond forms exist. A person may love a friend to...
Socrates argued that people could not describe a thing until they understood it. The definition of this is the response to “What is X?” questions. Socrates believed that one had to describe and understand something before knowing what it is. The famous Socratic definition was a response to the “X”...
Plato’s moral philosophy revolves around the virtue-driven eudemonistic idealization of ethics. According to him, happiness is the highest object of moral behavior and thoughts, while virtues are the necessary skills and confessions required to achieve it. Plato’s political philosophy was that conflicting ideas and interests shared by different sections of...
Plato’s theory of forms states that the physical world is actually not the real world, but the ultimate reality only exists beyond what we can see in the real world. Plato claims that there is the physical and the spiritual realm. The physical realm involves objects that interact with and...
Marx thought that, in the end, the working class would rebel against the bourgeoisie, and the workers’ revolution would end the bourgeoisie’s existence. As a result, there would be only one social class, and all citizens would be equal. In this new world, no oppression would take place, and even...
With regard to memories experienced after receiving an organ for a donor, Hume would argue that the self exists as a result of recorded sensory impressions. Therefore, sensory objects play a critical role in forming the self, which becomes embedded in the body. Descartes would argue that the act of...
Veritistic epistemology refers to the evaluation of specific practices by assessing their capacity to contribute to knowledge. It relates to Descartes’ theories in that all issues are first considered false before being subjected to analysis. Descartes applies the method of doubt to evaluate his existence. While various aspects of life...
According to Descartes, the idea of God differs from that of a chair because the former is an infinite being that placed the idea of his existence in a finite being, meaning God exists. Locke doubts God’s existence since he is incapable of sensing him.
Hume believed that impressions are vivid perceptions of the mind’s expressions while ideas are reflections of impressions. Locke noted that sensations are the experiences gained from sensory stimulation, while reflections are thought processes in one’s mind. While both theories define the origin of ideas, Locke includes aspects of the senses...
Rationalism is the belief that reason supersedes experience as the basis of knowledge. In essence, reality has a logical structure, and a category of truths guides an intellect’s thinking. Empiricism is the idea that all knowledge is the result of the stimulation of one’s senses. Therefore, all concepts can be...
According to Locke, consciousness is inextricably linked to personal identity rather than the physical form. Therefore, people are not dependent on their bodies, and they can exist in other bodies. Descartes would disagree because while he believed that the self is separate from the body, he did not state that...
The method of doubt encourages individuals to doubt the truth regarding everything and realize that indubitable ideas qualify as pieces of knowledge. I believe it is an effective way of understanding truths because doubt prompts inquiry which is essential for a comprehensive review of an idea’s multifaceted elements.
Descartes posits that the marked ice in a freezer can only be identified by depending on absolute certainty. Therefore, the individual must be capable of deducing that the ice is the result of frozen water. Locke proposes that there is no certainty in knowledge. Therefore, the identity of the ice...