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Sedimentary rocks are the only types of rocks that contain fossils. “Sedimentary rocks form when particles of sediment are deposited by water or wind, and then (in most cases) hardened or consolidated through time.” Other types of rocks do not preserve fossils. This is because, in other types of rocks,...
Fossils represent an incomplete picture of geologic history because there are specific conditions to be met for a dead animal to become a fossil. The remains have to stay in a place that is oxygen-free. This can happen only when the animal is buried immediately after its death. The other...
As time passes, more and more sediment accumulates around the remains of the dead organisms, which later on get hardened into sedimentary rock because of the pressure, heat, and chemical reaction at the depth where the dead animal is buried. Movements in the earth’s crust make the layers of hardened...
Fossils are found in shale, sandstone, and limestone, which are the different types of sedimentary rocks. Fossils can be found in limestone in the form of preserved whole shells or shell bits. Shapes of dead life forms get preserved in shale rocks, with fine-grained rock settling around the life forms....
Fossilization is usually a rare phenomenon as most components of once-living creatures tend to decay relatively quickly after their death. In order for the organism to be fossilized, it is necessary that the remains need to be covered by sediments at the earliest. Fossilization occurs under circumstances when the organisms...
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of dead animals or other organisms. Fossil formation begins with the death of a creature. When the dead animal settles at the bottom, the first reaction is the decaying of the fleshy parts. As a next step, the sediments cover the remains of...
The article “Empty House on the Prairie” is dedicated to the move to the Midwest before the ice breaks, making the family build the new house and totally change their life. “The tiny towns in the Great Plains and upper Midwest don’s want to die. They are trying to keep...
Environmental pragmatism, ethical relativism, and ethical pluralism are the three theories leading to environmental protection. Environmental pragmatism is the realistic and sensible approach against environmental destruction due to pollution, population explosion, global climate variations, etc. The environmental pragmatist principles focus to reduce maximum environmental destruction which is legally applicable. Ethical...
An advertisement about nuclear energy in an American scientific magazine runs like this “cleaner and greener”, referring to the energy obtained from nuclear power plants. “Our 103 nuclear power plants don’t burn anything, so they don’t produce greenhouse gases.” The Nuclear institutes try to tell the world that nuclear energy...
The term “Deep Ecology” is a part of Ecological philosophy that considers all human kinds as a basic element in this environment. This philosophy gives the idea that all living beings have an equal right to live and flourish in the environment. This philosophy was introduced by a Norwegian philosopher...
There is no denying the importance of the fact that Australia’s merchandise trade is differentiated by regional parameters. It should be noted that among the leading trade partners are the majority of developed and developing countries of East Asia and the Asia Pacific, such as China, Japan, Korea and New...
There is no denying the importance of the fact that tourism plays an important role in bolstering development and GDP growth in the Asia-Pacific region. Such countries as Thailand and Malaysia are notable examples of tourism phenomena when tourism money and resource flows significantly improved their economic and political positions...
The main advantage of modern technologies and innovative solutions used by the US is that they allow the state to inform populations on time and prevent mass destructions. The eruptions not only vary in their style and power, but also in their effects and interaction with the natural and the...
Geologically, volcanic eruptions are predictable. The main methods of predictions are seismographic monitoring, tiltmeters, surveillance by satellite. Generalizations based on broad trends are thus of limited use, because little preventive action could be taken about them. If, also, a volcano behaves in a consistent way, like many active cinder cones,...
Catastrophism ardently believes that the earth has sustained innumerable catastrophes and upheavals during its eventful lifetime. The present earth structure has been the end result of numerous cataclysmic activities like deluges, earthquakes, volcanic explosions, etc. The earth has survived all these calamities and yet is surging forward. Evidence of the...
The main type of volcanic hazards would be in the event of a series of small volcanic eruptions, change in the surface of the grounds, or significant gas emission in the vicinity. Similarly, it is seen that “Plate tectonics and continental drift are the basis for evidence of volcanoes.” Scientists...
In stable clouds, there is very little vertical motion, not enough even to generate small water droplets, and this thus escapes as a mild drizzle of precipitation. It is necessary that ice formation requires the occurrence of precipitation from the cloud from which falling rain must be well above freezing...
Precipitation occurs when cloud elements become too laden to remain in a state of suspension in the atmosphere and has to take recourse, following the law of gravity to move down to the earth’s surface. This may take the form of hail, rain, sleet, or even snow. The processes of...
Urban construction modifies surface properties that contribute to the VHI, such as albedo, etc. Studies conducted, including surface albedo, helped to locate surface-atmosphere interfacing and test conduct urban effects in a global climatic model. When comparing the zonal averaged urban albedo to the averaged cropland albedo, it is seen that...
Climate change refers to the conspicuous variations in either the average state of climate on earth or its variation over a period of time. This may occur due to internal forces or even due to external reasons, due to population growth or usage of land resources. The impact of greenhouse...
The atmospheric pressure exerted on any matter X could be said to be the pressure exerted above it. When the pressures at this point X increase, the atmospheric pressure is said to increase, and vice versa. It is seen that local high atmospheric pressures act as an obstacle to the...
Shorelines are in a constant state of fluctuation since sea waves move during high tides. The rising and falling of tidal waves advances or retards shorelines. The dangers of erosion and flooding pose real threats to shorelines, especially during storms. The areas near coastal regions are invariably affected by high...
The main aspects with regard to stabilizing shorelines could be seen in terms of alleviating the challenges posed by flooding, inundations, and erosion of shorelines. It is seen that there are a variety of techniques used, including providing barricades to seawater intrusion, providing walling and reinforcements, and laying of channels...
Just as the seashores are abode to different objects, so also the ocean bed may consist of rock, sand, remains of living organisms, etc. The origins of sediments could be divided into four categories as below: Originating from land, emanating from living undersea organisms, stemming from chemical reactions, and even...
According to the plate tectonics theory, nearly 200 million years ago, the continents were one giant mass moving along the Earth’s surface. Over a period of time, this mass collided and disintegrated to form the present continents. The collusion created mountains, of which the Ural Mountains could be one such...
The main factors that determine whether the hanging wall has moved upwards or downwards could be seen from a number of perspectives, including tectonic settings, fossils, etc. If it is in a pressurized compacted setting, it is very much likely that the hanging wall has moved in an upward direction,...
To a certain extent, the wind does contribute to soil erosion, especially in dry, arid regions, devoid of rainfalls except for occasional cloudbursts. Erosion is said to be a condition whereby rocks and other materials on the surface of the Earth get disintegrated and fragmented due to a variety of...
The main aspects that need to be considered would be the demand and levels of productivity of proposed aquifers. Besides this, other factors that are relevant are the total area of the proposed aquifers, the demand for it, the quality and proposed quantity of water that could be diverted to...
The term mass wasting refers to the downward descent of rocks and soil fragmentations induced by gravitational force. Most types of mass wasting are caused by gravitational influences and could range from unseen tiny displacements to massive landslides causing death and damages to lives and properties. Climatic conditions influence mass...
Weathering refers to a set of processes by which surface rocks break up into smaller fragments or gets dissolved during contact with water and atmospheric pressures. The various processes involved in mechanical or physical weathering could be seen in terms of wearing off action, which results in cleansing action on...
The most important elements that constitute the Earth’s crust are oxygen and silicon. The physical properties of minerals that help identify them are structure, thickness, chemical composition, and weight. The uncovered portions of the continental crust are thicker than oceanic crust, which is loaded with iron and other minerals. However,...
The atmosphere of the earth is multi-layered. The layer nearest to the surface is the troposphere. Followed by it is the stratosphere, where the ozone layer is located, which protects the earth, from ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation, considered to be harmful to all forms of life – humans, plants, and animals....
These two maps illustrate the political, social, and economic structure of the international community during and after the Cold War. There are various approaches to the stratification or division of countries. One of them is the so-called three-world theory, and it can be observed in the first picture. To some...
Some of the most common words that we hear almost daily include sustainable development, sustainable community, sustainable industry, sustainable agriculture, etc. If we observe, the term “sustainable” is very common in all these terms. In a layman’s language, sustainability is associated with the quality of life in a community. This...
There are seven main areas of environmental problems that face the National Park all around the world. These include overuse, insufficient funds for park operation, threats to wildlife, the concession systems, energy and mineral development, atmospheric pollution, and activities on neighboring lands. The major problem comes from the visitors coming...
The expansion of human activity all through the world is a major threat. Today, there is a major threat to biodiversity due to the unprecedented extinction of plant and animal species. The loss of biological diversity results in the instability of ecological systems, especially in the case of climate change...
Estimates suggest that the world’s population is growing by nearly 80 million people per year. The problem is with the less developed countries where rapid population growth aggravates poverty in developing countries. As a result, there is dwindling economic growth. People in these countries spend comparatively more percentage of their...
If we look at the history of human usage of energy, the sun was the first energy source that gave us light and heat. The discovery of fire resulted in the possibility of burning wood for cooking and heating. Renewable sources of energy such as sun, wind, biomass, and hydropower...
From the very beginning of human civilization, it has been noted that in one way or the other human beings have had their impact on the wildlife as well as the nearby ecosystem. Human impacts on wildlife species upset the basic life of wildlife and also cause pressure on wildlife...
If I were in charge of designing a conservation strategy, I would emphasize protecting whole communities or ecosystems rather than protecting individual endangered species. To elaborate on my point, I would like to take the example of the desert tortoise. The desert tortoise is among the endangered species known in...
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Earth Summit, took place from 3-14 June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Fact # 1 The Hudson is a broad, full-flowing river that has access to the Atlantic Ocean. Fact # 2 The first Dutch Colonies were created on the island of Manhattan, which is now one of the largest cities in the United States – New York. Connection A wide and...
The Ring of Fire is a place in the Pacific Ocean basin. It is still a seismically active area where most volcanic eruptions and earthquakes take place. This is also a place where several plates subduct, and this is what causes numerous earthquakes and eruptions.
Mount St. Helens (situated in Washington, the USA) can be regarded as an example of a volcano found at a plate boundary. Mauna Loa is a volcano (in the Hawaiian Islands) that is not situated at a plate boundary.
Paricutin is an exemplary cinder volcano that was formed in the twentieth century. Like any other cinder volcano, Paricutin is a cinder cone that is formed from basaltic lava. The eruption is caused by the accumulation of gasses, and when the volcano erupts and releases pyroclastic materials, a cone is...
The circumpacific belt is the place where the greatest energy is released as a result of plates’ motion. It is a narrow area of great seismic activity in the Pacific Ocean.
It is quite amusing to see millions of people supported in a desert-like Las Vegas. Las Vegas gets its water from Lake Mead and River Colorado through the Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA). The population should be controlled in this city if there is no other way of providing a...
The observations of these rivers suggest that, in the past, the Black River used to follow a path different from the current one. In particular, the Black River used to cross the area known as Deep Hollow and empty its water in the Cornwallis River.
The Hancock Brook empties its water in the Cornwallis River; that is where the mouth of the Hancock Brook is.
The water in the Hancock Brook flows north.
The water of the Gaspereau River ends up in the Minas Basin; that is where the mouth of this river is.
The water in the Gaspereau River flows northeast.
The water in the Black River flows northwest.
The environmental situation in Haiti is paradoxical. On the one hand, the country has a variety of natural resources. On the other hand, people have practically no access to these resources. Apart from the resource exploitation problem, Haiti also has serious environmental issues, pollution being the most severe of them....
Indonesia: Resources and Their Value For the successful development of their civilization, people rely on a variety of resources, many of which come from oceans and seas. There are four main types of marine resources: biological, physical, marine energy, and non-extractive ones. Biological resources are used for food, whereas other...
The movement of a bottle thrown into the sea would be dictated by thermohaline circulation or the global conveyor belt. The nickname of the deep circulation pattern appeared due to the resemblance with a belt that girdles the Earth. The thermohaline circulation incorporates different water temperatures and depths. As a...
If trade winds die down or reverse, there is a possibility of a hurricane and an ENSO event. Such a change can be explained by the nature of trade winds and their characteristics. Trade winds are the groups of dependable surface winds that appear between the sectors of rising and...
Climatic change has many negative effects on people and their environment. Some of the effects can give rise to dry spells, tsunamis, increased occurrences of hurricanes, and melting of ice in the northern and southern poles, among others. Generally, climatic change is a rapid and unexpected change in various natural...
Natural resources are substances that form on the Earths’ crust in their original form; that is, they normally occur on their own without any influence from human beings. These resources are either efficient for human survival or useful in men’s study of the environment around them. Mineral resources are naturally...
Geologists study sedimentary rocks through a process known as sedimentology. Generally, sedimentary rocks can be found all over the Earth, and they are used to study the Earth’s history, mainly because they contain most fossils, which may be as old as the Earth itself. Geologists compare recent rock features with...
Metamorphism is a sudden change in the Earth’s minerals without the process of liquidation taking place. The occurrence of the metamorphism process is catalyzed by heat, pressure, and reactive chemical fluids. Generally, chemical and crystal compositions of rocks tend to change without affecting or changing the rocks’ natural solid form....
Shield volcano is a type of volcano that is completely made up of liquid lava. The flow is very large in size and resembles a warrior’s shield when laid on the ground. The formation of a shield volcano emerges from the flow of lava with low-viscosity, which increases the size...
Plate movement is the sliding of Earth’s lithosphere (Earth’s outer layer) over the mantle layer. This action results in the formation of Earth’s features, such as mountain ranges and continental drift. Generally, plate movements are influenced by different forces on the Earth’s plates; these forces may be classified as either...
a. Centrifugal force is a force that pulls objects to the center of the Earth. This force causes the object to move in a circular motion. Centripetal force is a sudden force that is equal and opposite to the centripetal force. It represents the revolving body away from the Earth....
a. Mapping is the process of giving a full definition of how a particular document or place can be mapped to the search engine, while cartography is the art of making charts or maps. b. International Date Line is an imaginary line drawn on the Earth’s surface and is internationally...
a. Spatial geography deals with the study of space that pertains to and involves the nature of space. It might involve the spatial distribution of the population of people in a given area. b. Physical geography is the study of all the features within the Earth’s crust. It includes oceans,...
a. Political geography is a field that deals with human geography and is concerned with the study of mutual and effect of political procedures, and similarly how spatial structures influence politics. Political geography covers a wide range of aspects, for example, boundaries, nations, and other simplified divisions and subdivisions. For...
The academic meaning of geography is that it is the study that deals with the description, distribution, and interaction of miscellaneous physical, biological and cultural features of the Earth’s surface. It explains the study of natural phenomena and the distribution of natural resources on the Earth’s crust. Geography deals with...
According to Horowitz, Centripetal force is the force that orbits objects such as the earth use in making the revolutions around the sun and other orbiting bodies. In the case of the earth, gravity acts as a centripetal force. On the other hand, centrifugal force is the outward force of...
a. According to Maguire, mapping is the use of maps, which are representations of the earth’s surface on a flat medium. Cartography, on the other hand, is the study that involves the creation of maps designed to present the spatial information, material, and features on the earth’s surface on a...
a. Spatial geography is the field of geography that concerns itself with the study of locations, spatial interactions, and patterns as well as places. It focuses on the situation of things and how their occurrence took place. b. Physical geography is another field of geography that concerns itself with the...
a. Political geography is a branch of geography, which combines and integrates both political and geographical phenomena into one study. In other words, it is concerned with the study of geography that illuminates the political aspects of a region. It is also concerned with the study of politics linked to...
Geography is a field of study that strives to instill a better understanding of the planet within students. Geography is the study of various geographical areas and human beings’ interaction with their environment. Geography acts as a bridge between the physical and social sciences. The word geography comes from the...