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Consider the free-radical reaction to chlorinate methane to produce chloromethane. Cl2 + CH4 = HCl + CH3Cl. These are not the only products because a great variety of radical collisions are possible other than those leading to the simple idealized products. Your text notes the production of dichloromethane, trichloromethane, and tetrachloromethane. Show a complete mechanism, including the initiation step, to explain how 1,2-dichloroethane, a minor but detectable product in this reaction, could be produced. Use chain propagation steps whenever possible, although a key step in the mechanism has to be what is usually regarded as a termination step.

Chlorine reacts with methane to produce chloromethane and hydrogen chloride. This is not the only possible product because a great variety of different radical collisions are possible other than those leading to simple idealized products. For instance, dichloromethane, trichloromethane, and tetrachloromethane are produced in smaller amounts than the major product....

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Chemical Processes That Are Most Important to Human Life

Describe two of the chemicals and chemical processes that are most important to human life. Describe a chemical process you have seen in action. When and where did it happen? What took place when you observed this process? How does that process relate to one or more of the chemical...

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Soybean Protein Isolate Gel Particles as Foaming and Emulsifying Agents

Discuss soybean protein isolate gel particles as foaming and emulsifying agents. Analyze materials and methods of the work. What emulsions are being stabilized by gel particles? Evaluate foam stability tests and emulsion stability tests. Please, analyze the characterization of SPI macrogels and gel particles. Demonstrate how SPI microgel particles imparted...

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List the ketone bodies. Explain why would ammonium chloride-loaded dogs be acidotic. Would this be a respiratory or metabolic acidosis? Why? Why do you think that infusion of ketone bodies to these dogs induced a significant reduction in urinary excretion of ammonia, not attributed to urinary pH variations?

Ketone bodies are any molecules of ketone or carboxylic nature that are formed in the liver from acetyl-CoA. Usually, ketone bodies should not be high in the blood, but an increase in ketone allows acetone to pass the urinary barrier in the kidneys and be found in the urine, indicating...

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Why do you think that infusion of ketone bodies adjusted is usually accompanied by a small increase in extracellular bicarbonate, but the infusion of sodium lactate or sodium bicarbonate in amounts sufficient to induce a similar rise in plasma bicarbonate results in only a slight decrement in ammonia production (15%)? What is mannitol? How is it used in medicine? Why do you think that continuous infusion of 5% mannitol alone failed to influence renal ammoniogenesis?

The salts sodium bicarbonate and sodium lactate have a significant clinical value, exercising an antacid effect. The state of metabolic acidosis, in which the concentration of ketone bodies in the body increases, can be corrected by infusion of these salts. The infusion of these substances significantly changes the level of...

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Why do you think that the renal glutamine arteriovenous difference was abolished where ketones were infused? Why do you think that infusion of β-hydroxybutyrate into the left renal artery resulted in a rapid decrease in ammoniogenesis by the perfused kidney?

It is already clear that when ketone bodies were infused in this experiment, the concentration of ammonia in the urine must have decreased because of extrinsic metabolic processes, including those involving glutamine. In fact, it is easy to get confused about causal effects in this regard, so metabolic conversions and...

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Define purification level.

Purification level could be defined as the measurement of the gain in the purity of a protein after it has gone through protein purification and completed the entire procedure. Each enzyme’s purity level is mostly dependent on the enzyme’s application, for instance, the ones used in assays, as seen in...

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Give the mathematical equation that defines purity.

Mathematically, the equation that defines the purity of a protein is as follows; particular reaction at a specific step/ precise activity of the subsequent extract. We can also try to compute the percentage purity of a protein. This can be done by fractionating the mass of the pure protein over...

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List five stages into which protein purification can be divided.

The protein purification processes always involve a series of steps that are five in number. The stages are known in the following order: formation of the source, information on the properties of the protein, establishment of an assay, elementary isolation, and, lastly, the closing purification stage. In addition, protein purification...

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Explain why scientists purify proteins.

Scientists always tend to purify proteins for different reasons. Some of the reasons why scientists tend to purify the proteins are to use the purified proteins to distinguish the task of the protein in animals, the protein’s interaction, and to know the chemical structure of the proteins. Protein purification is...

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You are asked to purify a hexokinase. Discuss the parameters you would consider in sourcing and selecting such an enzyme, and briefly indicate how you would stabilize these proteins in isolation. What is a hexokinase? Which hexokinase would you think of purifying? Why? Think where you would find lots of this enzyme in a mammal. (You should be able to get this organ easily at the butcher’s from a pig or cow.) Will you find this enzyme in the highest concentration in the liver or muscle? Why? How you will extract, isolate and purify the enzyme. How would you prove that you have indeed extracted this hexokinase?

Hexokinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates hexoses, sugars known to have six carbons, creating hexose phosphate. In most animals, glucose is the highest important substrate for hexokinases. Its product is glucose-6-phosphate which is the most vital one. Hexokinase can move an inorganic phosphate group from ATP to a substrate. Protein...

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β-hydroxybutyric acid is a ketone body. Explain, with suitable equations, how it is formed in the body and under what conditions. Define ketonemia, and name at least three conditions that you might expect to see in humans. Why did ketonemia occur in the experiment, in your opinion?

Beta-hydroxybutyric acid is one of the three ketone bodies that are fuel for muscle tissue. Excessive accumulation of the product in the body is characterized by ketosis, which is destructive to health. Meanwhile, beta-hydroxybutyric acid can be used as a source of energy for the brain when there is a...

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Why do you think that the ammonia content of both urine and renal venous blood fell markedly so that ammoniogenesis was depressed by 60% or more within 60 min after the onset of infusion?

Infusion of ketone bodies was aimed at introducing beta-hydroxybutyric acid into the liquid media of dogs, which in turn led to a state of temporary ketonemia and ammonia genesis. Early sources confirmed that ammonium chloride has a ketogenic effect on the body, which should result in a severe increase in...

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What is acetoacetate? Why do you think that the addition of sodium acetoacetate resulted in a 50% decrease in renal ammonia production?

Among the ketone bodies, acetoacetate, a salt of acetoacetic acid, should also be identified. Acetoacetate is not a stable molecule and, as a result, is easily converted to other ketone bodies, whether acetone or beta-hydroxybutyric acid. In this sense, acetoacetate should be considered the most crucial precursor of ketogenesis in...

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Why do you think that infusion of pure sodium-free β-hydroxybutyric acid prepared resulted in a 50% decrease in renal ammoniogenesis in spite of the fact that both urinary pH and plasma bicarbonate fell significantly?

The addition of pure beta-hydroxybutyrate in the form of the corresponding acid affected a decrease in urine pH as well as a decrease in plasma bicarbonate concentration. This is easily explained by the chemical processes that occur when the acid enters the body’s fluid media, namely, the initiation of dissociation....

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Explain how ketone bodies depress renal ammoniogenesis by preventing the transformation of glutamine and glutamate into α-ketoglutarate in the mitochondria of the renal tubular cell.

It is paramount to clarify that ketone bodies, at first glance, should have had a positive effect on ammonia genesis since ketosis states of the body metabolically lead to ammonia synthesis. However, studies with dogs in states of acidosis showed the opposite effect: infusion of ketone bodies had a negative...

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Macromolecules of Lunch Ingredients

Describe a recent lunch you had (or would like to have) from the chemical point of view. Make sure you include the ingredients, to the best of your knowledge. For example, if you had a sandwich, what exactly was in it? List the ingredients. Determine the major class of macromolecule...

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The Strength of an Acid, Base, and pH of a Solution

Determine the strength of an acid, base, and pH of a solution. Purchase a head of red cabbage from the grocery store. Chop the cabbage into small pieces until you have about 2 cups of chopped cabbage. Place the cabbage in a large glass container and add boiling water to...

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Organic Polymers for Gas Adsorption

How good are covalent organic polymers named COP130 and COP140 for use in the industry for CO2 capture application? Why are these two materials the best materials so far among other organic porous materials? What can you say about the process and costs of their synthesis? What temperature is needed...

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A Living Chemist and Their Famous Works or Discoveries

Write about a chemist (a living chemist) and one of their famous works or discoveries. Ask informed questions about the chemistry encountered in everyday life. Relate learning to pop culture or science in the news. How is their work relevant to society? Describe the scholarly scientific research article by the...

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Organic Compounds in Our Foods and Household Products

What are some organic compounds present in your home or workplace? Discuss the importance of chemistry in our society. Identify, classify, organize, analyze, and draw structures of organic molecules. Apply the basic rules of organic nomenclature to convert between structures and names. Find at least five examples of organic compounds...

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Identifying Silver, Rhodium, and Platinum

How would you identify the metals (silver, rhodium, and platinum) in these bottles with metallic powder? You have a summer internship working in a jewelry laboratory where your job is to explore the properties of some alloys (mixtures of metals) of silver, rhodium, and platinum in order to make brighter...

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Draw PQQ (Pyrroloquinoline quinone), illustrating how a metal ion would bind at each of the three proposed sites. Discuss the merits of each for Ca2+ according to HSAB (hard and soft acids and bases).

Calcium ions are utilized in radiometric indicators. The Ca2+ fluorescent indicator allows for the correct gauging of the intracellular concentration of calcium. The readout of the ratiometric reduces the impacts of leakage, the inconstant width in a mixture of populations, random loading, and photobleaching, thus submitting a strong and efficient...

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What is the ideal reference value ratio of T/(T+MT) in biological tissues?

The research has shown that zinc clasp assembly formation depends on the zinc ion concentration. Therefore, this domain formation is aided by metallothionein (MT), which plays a significant role in cellular zinc homeostasis. The results found that with 100 percent MT, there is a highly complex folding regardless of concentration,...

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Explain the relationship between the molar fraction of the functional zinc domain and zinc availability and how it impacts concentration distribution in the graphs. Relationship between the molar fraction of the functional zinc domain and zinc availability presented on logarithmic scale of free Zn(II) concentration (log[Zn(II)]free). Isotherms of Zn(II) binding to (a) zinc finger ZF133, (b) LIM, (c) zinc hook and (d) zinc clasp domains at various peptide concentrations are indicated as green, blue, gray and red circles.

The graphs mentioned show the relationship and the dependency of zinc domain saturation and the pZn values regarding concentration changes. It is found that the four isotherms overlap minus the peptide concentration with appropriated half-saturation points. Moreover, it is also noticed that pZn at inflection points shifts with an increase...

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What is the difference in terms of structure between the four zinc protein domains?

The four zinc protein domains are the zinc finger (ZnP), LIM domain (Zn2P), zinc hook (ZnP2), and zinc clap (ZnP1P2) folds. The different structure occurs due to specific combinations where the metal ion can bind either solely or in clustered manner, i.e., ZnP or Zn2P. Moreover, other structures also appear...

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By adding Norleucine in place of methionine in the peptide what happens to its ability to bind to Cu(I)?

In understanding the molecular mechanisms of the amphiphilic membrane-active peptides, the interactions of the peptides and the lipids bilayer’s under near-native situations are crucial. The composition of the amino acids greatly determines the non-particular features of the peptides in regard to the physicochemical features of the side chains. The outcoming...

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What is PQQ (Pyrroloquinoline quinone) and why is it relevant to Calcium?

PQQ can be defined as the redox cofactor of glucose dehydrogenase alcohol and enzyme dehydrogenases. It is a small molecule that contains the ability to reoxidate. It is capable of able to reduce oxidants. This means that it has an antioxidant impact. It plays a significant role as a cofactor...

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What is the primary advantage of substituting Lanthanides (or other transition metals in place of Ca2+ for experiments? Specifically, why are lanthanide complexes colored while Ca2+ complexes are not?

The primary advantage of substituting lanthanides in place of calcium ions. That is why lanthanides are colored, but Ca2+ complexes are not. Coordination with lanthanides leads to a strong shift of all the seven quinine and carboxyl absorption bands and causes the appearance of a broad, poorly resolved feature between...

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What is the difference (in terms of structure) between the four zinc protein domains?

Kocyła et al. examined classical zinc finger (ZnP), LIM domain (Zn2P), zinc hook (ZnP2), and zinc clasp (ZnP1 P2). These zinc protein domains differ structurally in that they have distinct Zn(II)-to-protein binding stoichiometries. While the first is the smallest protein structure binding to just one Zn(II) ion, the second one...

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Metallothionein is a zinc storage protein whose transcriptional regulation is synced with ZNT1 (Zinc transporter 1). What is the function of ZNT1 and why might its transcription mirror metallothionein?

ZNT1 is a predominantly human cell plasma membrane protein responsible for transporting zinc inside the cell. Specifically, this protein regulates the flow of zinc (and calcium) inward, protecting the cell from excess cations. When zinc cations are abundant outside the cell, ZNT1 transcription is enhanced by MTF-1, affecting metallothionein. In...

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Summarize some of the findings in the research “Essential oils: Sources of antimicrobials and food preservatives” by Pandey et al. How do you think ancient cultures discovered the power of natural compounds to preserve food? Why has there been such a change in the way spices and/or essential oils are used in food preservation?

The paper “Essential oils: Sources of antimicrobials and food preservatives” by Pandey et al. discusses and summarizes the scientific findings regarding essential oils used in the food industry as preservatives. Specifically, the authors concentrate on the qualities of essential oils to serve as antibacterial, bactericidal, antifungal, and fungicidal food preservatives....

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Briefly define the following airborne materials, and provide two examples of how each is generated: dust, fumes, smoke, aerosols, mists, gases, and vapors.

The following are definitions for airborne various materials: dust, fumes, smoke, aerosols, mists, gases, and vapors. Dust – solid particles produced by applying significant mechanical force to separate them from an object, such as wooden dust from drilling or sawing or minuscule pieces of metal from hammering or friction. Fumes...

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Research the bicarbonate buffering system found in the bloodstream. Write a paragraph or two discussing this system and how your breathing rate can cause acidosis and alkalosis.

The bicarbonate buffering system comprises weak carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions. Its function is to regulate the pH of the blood. When any acidic substance enters the blood, hydrogen ions are neutralized by the formation of carbonic acid and water. Given that carbonic acid is already part of the buffer...

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Consider the following situation: a. A cell contains 3 Na+, 7 K+, and 10 H2O molecules. b. The extracellular fluid contains 7 Na+, 3 K+, and 10 H2O molecules. c. All ions create equal osmotic pressure. d. The cell membrane is impermeable to the diffusion of both Na+ and K+ but is completely permeable to H2O. If 3 Na+ move from the ICF out if the ECF, then a. Is the ECF now isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic to the ICF? b. How must the Na+ have gotten outside the cell? c. If osmosis is also going to occur, in which direction will the net movement of water be?

If three sodium ions move from the ICF into the ECF, the ECF is now hypertonic to the ICF. The sodium ion got out of the cell through the sodium-potassium pump, which is a membrane-associated protein channel that uses ATP to move sodium and potassium ions against their concentration gradient....

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Explain why dislocations move more easily in metallic bonded, compared to ionic or covalently bonded crystals and why this requires a far lower stress than the theoretical strength of a crystal.

Covalently bonded crystals’ dislocation motion is limited due to the high strength and the highly directional nature of bonds (between the core and localized bonds). In the ionic bonded crystal, the same is less directional (between positive ions and negative ions), and any slip is restricted, but while in metallically...

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Why do some creatures form fossils and others don’t?

It is important to keep in mind that only those creatures that have solid elements in their bodies (e.g., a skeleton, a shield, etc.) can form fossils. According to the mechanism of fossils creation, it is necessary that the cavity created by the decayed solid elements of the organism should...

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a. What atmospheric gas is produced by the interaction of sunlight and nitric oxide (NO)? b. Are forests more or less dense in the Pacific Northwest region than 200 years ago? c. Explain the effects of acid rain on the forests in this region.

a. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2). b. As compared to 200 years ago, the forests in the Pacific Northwest have become denser. c. Acidic rainfall results from the burning of fossil fuels and mainly coal. This leads to the emission of sulfur into the atmosphere in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2)....

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118 different elements have been recognized in chemistry. Out of those only 25 are involved in our body structures and functions. Which are the most and least important ones and why?

I believe that the most important chemical elements found in the human body are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. This is because these elements make up the vast share of substances and components that are essential for our body to function. For example, hydrogen allows for the creation of hydrogen...

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What role does dancing play in Pride & Prejudice?

In “Pride and Prejudice”, dance performs as the setting for some social rituals. Like that of courtship, for example. Dance enables people to learn and socialize with each other. It goes this way both in the novel and in real life. Especially when it comes to the Victorian era. It...

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a. Explain the use of Kroger-Vink notation to describe the formation of and interactions between point defects in solids. What rules must be followed in constructing defect chemical equations? b. Using the Kroger-Vink notation, write defect chemical equations representing the following reduction/oxidation reactions: 1. The reduction of TiO2, with the formation of oxygen vacancies and electrons. 2. The reduction of TiO2, with the formation of titanium interstitials and electrons. 3. The oxidation of TiO2, with the formation of titanium vacancies and electron holes. 4. The oxidation of TiO2, with the formation of oxygen interstitials and electron holes. c. For each of the reactions (1) to (4) above, explain whether the electronic conductivity is expected to change as a function of the oxygen partial pressure. d. 1. Construct defect chemical equations to describe the dissolution of Sb2O5 in TiO2, with charge compensation by either titanium vacancies of free electrons. 2. In a similar way, write defect chemical equations to describe the dissolution of MgO in TiO2, with charge compensation by either oxygen vacancies or electron holes.

a. The anion (more electronegative) component in an ionic compound is typically a nonmetallic element and designated as X. The cation (more electropositive) component is a metallic element and designated as M. A vacant lattice site is designated as V. Atoms or ions can occupy cation (M) sites, anion (X)...

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a. Outline the principles of Pauling’s 5 rules for predicting the crystal structures of ionic solids. b. Show how Pauling’s rules can be used, together with the data give in Tables 1 and 2, to explain the crystal structure of Na2O, which is based on an fcc array of oxide ions. Draw a schematic diagram showing a unit cell of this structure. Explain which interstitial sites are occupied by the Na+ ions. c. Sketch a plan view of the Na2O unit cell, marking on your diagram the height of all ions present. d. Calculate a theoretical value for the density of Na2O, given that the relative atomic masses of sodium and oxygen are 22.99 and 16.00 respectively.

a. The rules of Pauling’s relating crystal structures are: bonding strength, coordination of the polyhedral, linkage for polyhedral, cation evasion, environment homogeneity. b. Na2O When two sodium atoms combine to form a molecule, they share two electrons. Each atom then has a complete shell of eight electrons. The electron structure...

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Uncovered lightbulbs may expose food to which type of hazard?

Uncovered lightbulbs may expose food to physical and chemical hazard. Explanation: Food safety is concerns with a variety of hazards, including biological, chemical, and physical. Biological hazards occur due to bacteria, viruses, parasites, and mold in products, which lead to foodborne illness. Chemical hazards happen when toxic chemicals or allergens...

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Which of the following is true about energy drinks and mixers a) Carbonation generally slows the rate of alcohol absorption b) A sweet taste can hide the taste of alcohol c) Caffeine helps keep the person aware of how intoxicated he or she is d) All of the above?

A sweet taste can hide the taste of alcohol so answer B is the correct one. Explanation: Most of the energy drinks that people use as mixers are very sweet because they contain a lot of artificial sweeteners. These help to hide the taste of alcohol and makes drinking easier...

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Why are proteins considered polymers but lipids not?

Proteins are polymers because they consist of long sequences of amino acids. Lipids have a single structure formed by glycerol and three fatty acids. Explanation: A monomer is a molecule that can attach itself to other monomers, thus forming a more complex structure. A large molecule that is composed of...

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