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Most people were peasants who worked on and with the land. Nearly 90% of the population in Western Europe worked the fields, orchards, and woodlots for a living. These men and women worked for others and had few prospects of becoming independent. Their lives were filled with hard and sweaty...
Manorial agriculture was well-developed in the middle Ages. Productivity was improved with the invention of the iron-tipped plow in the twelfth century. This new equipment could plow even the heaviest soils, and it opened up whole new regions to grain productivity. Another major achievement was the introduction of the padded...
The Gothic churches still remain the most impressive example of late medieval art forms. The Gothic churches demonstrate the ability to project a vision of life into the concrete artistic format. The beauty and great power are presented in the architecture of the Gothic churches. The churches were the most...
Religion was used to rule over society. The church authorities helped to convince other people that the ruler was the sacred power. Religion could unite people as well as disintegrate. Building various kinds of the church was necessary to create places for worship and was used by the government as...
Over and above, the two treaties have been a success in various ways. For instance, with the assistance of the Multilateral Fund, the Montreal Protocol was instrumental for the elimination of over 116,000 tons of ozone-depleting substances. This resulted in the cutting of well over 70% of developing country totals....
Kyoto treaty The Kyoto treaty is a protocol established by the United Nations Framework Convention on climate change, which intended to fight global warming to stabilize the concentration of gases from a greenhouse in the atmosphere. The main aim of this was to prevent interference in climate change by dangerous...
The Kyoto Treaty is an agreement that came about from the United Nations in the 1992 Earth Summit. It was established for the sake of cutting greenhouse gas emissions in order to avert hazardous anthropogenic intrusion with the climate system. Among the major achievements of the Kyoto Protocol is the...
In 1987, during the presidency of Ronald Reagan, the United States signed the Montreal Protocol and established itself as an active and instrumental participant to date. With the entry of the Kyoto Protocol in 2005, the responsibility of the United States has been to reduce the prices of energy in...
February 4, 1899, went down in the history of the Philippines as the beginning of a war with the United States. The barely born Philippine Republic entered into an unequal struggle with the most potent imperialist power, possessing multiple military and economic superiority. From the course and nature of military...
Abolitionists used a combination of methods to revolt against the white masters. Perhaps, abolitionists operated in the 1800s in the United States, and Oates described some of their ways as preaching and distributing antislavery pamphlets. One of the popular pamphlets written by David Walker titled, The Appeal to the Colored...
Rats were plague carriers that accompanied Mongol troops during their military campaigns, and they brought the plague to China. As the Mongols managed to establish their rule in the greater part of Eurasia, they encouraged long-distance trade and caravans brought the plague to different regions. With the decline of Mongol...
The 1970s relates to the postwar era that marked the end of economic expansion and consumer prosperity and setting in of the recession. The US experienced a bottleneck competition from overseas, which led to the decline of the American Industry. After the war, there was a rise in movements calling...
The machine age which has been coupled with the use of computers has aptly brought mixed fortunes. We all acknowledge that it is out of human intelligence that computers came into being. One major positive implication of the growing technology is that information can be stored, processed, retrieved and transmitted...
Plutarch repeatedly emphasizes Alexander’s self-restraint to demonstrate his exceptional moral virtue. Indeed, Alexander never associated with any of the women from his conquered territories. What is more, he tended to ignore his female prisoners, eager to demonstrate “has chastity and self-control”. In such a manner, Alexander aspired to display his...
Plutarch emphasizes Alexander’s natural gift for leadership. Indeed, he ascended the throne as early as at the age of twenty-one. Moreover, the political situation in Macedon was highly unstable at that time. However, Alexander did not listen to older advisers and made his own decisions as to Macedon’s external policy....
Alexander was highly educated and literate, and Plutarch provides several proofs for this fact. First of all, his father paid much attention to his training. Philip understood that his son’s education “was too important to be entrusted to the ordinary run of teachers”. Instead of limiting Alexander’s training to general...
The Pre-revolution of 1760-1775 was a 15-year upheaval before the American Revolution against England’s colony and policies. The revolution was a great milestone in ending slavery and establishing a more stable republic guided by policies and legislation acceptable to all. The revolt began after the end of the Seven Year...
Slaves were majorly the young, strong men in their teens and twenties who worked under cruel conditions on the plantations. The slaves in the plantations worked either in the master’s home or in the fields. Tasks were assigned according to physical stability. Completion of the work assigned on the fields...
At the beginning of the 20th century, the world entered the era of imperialism or monopoly capitalism. And as an advantage, the president of the United States was one of the main ideologists of imperialism. Roosevelt was the first to say that the United States’ interests go far beyond being...
During the 1950s, the US experienced increasing attention to the concept of consumerism and protectionism. Because of the growing consumerisms, critics emerged to counter the concept. The period during the 1950s through 60s saw the increased critique of the mass society and consumerism, arguing that it was entirely stultifying, corrosive,...
European expansion and colonization of the new world is a process motivated by a variety of factors. Overall, the evaluation of the situation shows that Europeans were motivated by such major factors as territorial expansion; the desire to spread their religious beliefs around the earth along with a goal of...
Discussing the different colonial transplantations that occurred in Virginia, Maryland, and Massachusetts Bay, it is important to mention that the leaders of communities occupying these territories developed their own strategies of managing their surviving strategies. Some of them became more successful, and some appeared to be disastrous. The transplantation in...
Addressing the major sources of friction between the Indians and the English in Virginia and Massachusetts Bay, it appears that they are both connected to the issue of land owing. However, the cases are slightly different in these lands. Firstly, in Virginia, the settlers faced the difficulties of surviving the...
The beginning of European migration with Americans resulted in numerous factors such as escaping political subjugation, seeking freedom of religion, searching for opportunities they were rejected at home. In the early 16th century, economic challenges rocked England. Many people, even trained artisans, were unemployed and had poor living standards. In...
Once the immigrants arrived and settled in the North and the South, they embarked on building new economic systems with the aid of the physical environment. The new settlers had to learn lessons from the natives to survive. The friendly Indians taught them to grow indigenous plants such as beans,...
Throughout the seventeenth century, indentured servitude and slavery contributed significantly to the expansion of the colonial economy. Before the Indian and the French war, the American colonies mainly ruled themselves and had a relatively healthy economy. Despite their success in political matters, the colonists urgently needed help with work as...
Robin Osborne in his article “Law, the democratic citizen and the representation of women in classical Athens”; starts by arguing that the qualification for Athenian citizenship was to be based on the descent of individuals from both an Athenian Mother and father. The reasons for the author’s argument in this...
The climate changes brought bad harvest and famine, and in complex with plague, it brought depopulation of many regions. Many peasants in China and Europe supported millenarian ideas as they thought that the weather was “a whiplash” while the plague was “a scourge” of God, they were divine punishment for...
Chinese empire lost about 25 million people because of the plague, so did Europe too. Geographic isolation was the perfect measure of precaution against plague as infection could not spread there. Such trading kingdoms as Ghana and Mali were prosperous when Europe was devastated as they sold such expensive goods...
According to Brent, mortality in the imperial Roman society was seasonal and indicative that most deaths took place during the late summer term and within the early fall season. He further accounts that these deaths took place across the major age groups that include men and women below the age...
First, modern perception of diseases differs from their perception by people of the fourteenth century. They could observe different symptoms, use different words to describe them. Second, diseases also change and what we know to be plague could be different diseases in the fourteenth century. People thought poisonous vapors caused...
Jews were the losers during the age of plague as they were accused of the start of the plague by means of poisoning the wells. Still, there were also “winners” of the age of plague: wealthy women in Europe. As there was high demand for young women who could give...
The British colonization of the North American region spans from the late 16th century, these colonies were located in the north, central and south America, including the Caribbean islands. These colonies had religious freedom and exhibited a unique art identity common to the states. The sprouting of democracy in America...
The Columbian Exchange was an exchange of culture, ideas, animals, and plants between the Eastern and the Western hemispheres. It can be regarded as the biggest revolution in history because it affected practically every society present on the earth. (Not only has it brought new diseases into the communities that...
Massive transplantation of human labor took place in America in the 16th and 17th centuries due to slavery that flourished in the country back then. Slavery began in response to the severe labor shortages. The absence of work made people get involved in unfree labor, as well as indentured servitude....
The balance of power between settled life and pastoralism was noticed to have shifted in favor of the settlers because pastoralism was blamed for depletion and desertification of resources, as well as in causing environmental degradation. At present, however, pastoralism is still a predominant way of life in some parts...
Most of the explanations for the “age of plague” were supernatural. In those times, people used to blame something that they disliked for all the misfortunes. Thus, some people blamed Jew for spreading the disease for, due to misinformation, they considered them bad and thought that the Jews, in revenge,...
Industrial growth in America began in the 1800s and continued up to the beginning of the civil war. After the war, it saw significant growth. This development had a significant effect on America with respect to political, social, and economic affairs. As most of the industries were concentrated in cities,...
During the 16th and 17th centuries, the human settlement has significantly expanded its range. The main motive behind this expansion was colonization, especially the First colonization wave that took place between the 15th and 19th centuries. Colonization had a considerable effect on the ecological frontiers because the colonialists were largely...
“New Frontier” was a slogan used by John F. Kennedy urge to Americans to support him during the presidential election in the United States in 1960. Previously, he used this slogan to lure people to vote for him and later during his acceptance speech as a democratic nominee to Democratic...
For a long time, Iran was under the monarchial rule of the Safavid dynasty. The rule of Mohammad Reza Shah scuttled due to a popular revolutionary movement. During World War II, Iran declared itself neutral, but the presence of German troops in its territory contrasted this declaration. Shah later called...
In the late 19th century, United States policies and expansion in the western hemisphere and elsewhere seemed to greatly rely on Monroe Doctrine, Roosevelt Corollary, and Taft’s Dollar Diplomacy. Monroe Doctrine was established in 1823 that asserted that further attempts by European nations to control states that were within America...
Many factors led to the great depression. Among them was the combination of the numerous uneven distribution of wealth and the huge speculations of the stock market. In the 1920s, there was an uneven distribution of wealth between the rich and the middle-class, as well as between agriculture and industry....
A civil rights movement was also defined as the fight against racial discrimination following the ruling of the case Brown V. Board of Education (1954): It held that segregated schools were unconstitutional and called for the nationwide desegregation of schools. This encouraged the African-Americans to fight for liberation. This can...
The era of the 1960s was considered a duration of counter-culture it gave birth to a conflict between men and women who were born before the second world war and those who were born after the second world war. These two groups’ school of thought and the way they viewed...
The cold war involved technological evolution. It was all about the silent technological competition between the US and the Soviet Union. Nixon dealt with this situation using diplomacy rather than military force a strategy that was called the “detente strategy” that saw the end of the Vietnam War and the...
Spanish colonization took place far prior to English and French ones during Christopher Columbus’ second expedition in 1493. Back then, the Americas were not yet affected by colonization, and there was still much to explore on the continent. The Spanish were first to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Great Plains,...
The history of the United States has its own milestone dates and periods of special significance. The period of time that followed the World War II (1945 – 1963) played the crucial role in the recovery of the depressive US economy and formulated the principles of the country’s foreign policy...
World war two created a bipolar international system that quickly replaced the numerous superpowers that existed prior to that war. The two major victors of this war were the United States and the Soviet Union. These two countries continued to enjoy their status as superpowers until 1989 when the Soviet...
The First World War was distinct from other former nineteenth century wars because of a number of reasons; the first being that it involved a vast number of nations. Austria Hungary, Germany and Turkey compromised the central powers while Italy, Russia, France, Britain, US, Romania, Greece, Portugal and Japan represented...
Most historians trace the making of the modern Middle East right before the 1918 fall of the Ottoman Empire all the way to the 1956 exit of European powers from the Middle Eastern region; consequently, the time span is between 1914 and 1956. 1918 marked the entry of Britain and...
The Early Middle Ages also known as the Dark Ages was a time span in the history of Europe soon after the fall of Roman Empire. “The term Middle Ages seems to have been first used by Flavio Biondo”. There seems to have been retarded development which plunged Europe into...
The renaissance began sometimes back between the years one thousand three hundred and fifty to one thousand five hundred and fifty or between the years one thousand three hundred and one thousand six hundred. This was an era marked by regeneration, rebirth as well as tragedy. Historians believe that this...
The late middle ages in the life of Catholic Church was marked with serious corruption. Money became the source of all evils in the church. The reputation of the church and the entire clergy went down. As a result, the opposing group, called the Protestants tried to find their way...
The book ‘The Gentle Subversive’ by Mark Hamilton is dedicated to the disclosure of Rachel Carson’s life, illustrating the road leading to the creation of influential work ‘Silent Spring’. Hamilton managed to explore the evolution of developed Carson’s ideas as to nature, her devotion to the sea, and her description...
Chapter 2 from the book Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism by James W. Loewen demonstrates the struggle between the northern and the southern states related to the problem of African American representatives of the US. Restrictions provided toward the Black part of the American society since the...
The “Female Workers of Lowell” document was published by the newspaper The Harbinger when this phenomenon was most extensively practiced in America, qualifies it as a primary document.
PLO is a political group with a legislative wing formed in May 1964. The organization today has worldwide recognition as the representative of the Palestinian people. PLO was founded in Cairo by the Arab league. PLO has a charter that unites it and sets out its objectives. One of the...
Ancient Rome accepted noblewomen to be recognized as citizens though with restrictions that limited their interests in leadership politically. The Roman society which could be described as patriarchal did not allow women to participate in politics despite their outspoken nature. The women, however, continued to fight for their political space...
A neolithic revolution occurred when agriculture replaced hunting and gathering as ancient people settled. According to Hunt et al 14, the agricultural revolution describes the period around 10, 000 BC, when the rise of human settlements forced people to plant crops and rear animals as an alternative form of earning...
Hospitality promotes good relations between people through love and kindness. It is a virtue that drives one to meet another person’s needs without necessarily having blood relations between them. It also seeks to strengthen social bonds among friends as well as strangers through human understanding. Hospitality enables people to welcome...
Homo erectus was found in Africa about 1.8-.3 million years ago. The importance of Homo erectus, in comparison to Homo fossils, is that they are considered to be the first who used hunting-gathering activities. Moreover, considering the history of the development of Homo erectus, it should be mentioned that this...
Originally, these two events in American-British history are closely linked to each other. The Tea Act provoked the Intolerable Acts, thus, the chain reaction was launched, which was the natural reaction for the increasing aggravation and tension between Empire and Colony. Taking into consideration the notion that American Colonies wished...
The early nineteenth century was fuelled by technical innovation assisted by a lot of hard work. Following the War of 1812, the domestic market also gradually expanded. There occurred a ‘Market revolution’ during this period. As the market revolution was complemented by the cotton boom of the early 19th century...
After the excesses of Mao Tse Tung’s reign, the Communist Party of China had initiated various measures to formalize institutionalism by which deserving party leaders who showed promise were gradually groomed up the party hierarchy to ultimately take the top appointments. Hu Jintao had been identified fairly early by Deng...
At the end of the 18th and the beginning of 19th century, there were historical conditions for the rise of independence movements in Latin America. The development of revolutionary processes was accelerated by the French revolution. The direct response to it was the revolution of the slaves in Haiti (1791-1803),...
The spread of populism in Latin America was one of the huge phenomena in the political world, and the rising development of populism in Argentina was one of the most significant stages of Latin America’s political life. Through the period of Peron’s government, the populism in Argentina had peaked at...
The two best presidents: Theodore Roosevelt and his nephew, Franklin Delano Roosevelt. FDR considered Theodore Roosevelt the greatest man he had ever met because of his energy, his zeal for reform, and his vision. He rates as one of the best presidents not only because he was a war hero,...
The first New Deal began in 1933 and focused on banking reform, work relief programs, and the end of the gold standard. That included the establishment of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which guaranteed deposits up to $5,000, thereby restoring public confidence in the banking system. Huge public works programs...
From the colonial period, Latin America had always suffered from exploitation, first by the European powers and later from the autocrats who ruled the countries. American interference in Latin America through the 19th and the 20th century revolved around reinforcing its influence but never in trying to change the system...
On 14 October 1962, a US spy plane detected the presence of missile sites in Cuba that were assessed to be SS-4 and SS-5, each with a one-megaton warhead which could target almost the entire Continental United States that were placed by the Soviet Union. The United States enforced a...
The poor economic conditions in East Germany forced the East German government to allow its citizens to cross the Berlin Wall and visit West Germany in 1989. The West Germans welcomed their estranged countrymen, and the citizens of both countries literally tore down the Berlin wall paving the way for...
Detente means the ceasing of hostilities and de-escalation through diplomacy and confidence building measures. Ostpolitk is a German concept of bringing change in relations through rapprochement, normalizing relations between estranged countries as practised by erstwhile West Germany to bring about a closer relationship with East Germany and Eastern Europe.
NPT – Non-Proliferation Treaty. SALT – Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. START- Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty. MAD – Mutually Assured Destruction.
The association of South-East Asian nations comprises of Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Myanmar was created to ensure peace, prosperity, stability and economic growth in South East Asia. The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) is a grouping of ASEAN countries plus 17 other countries aimed at...
India, after independence, did not want to join either the Western Bloc of the Soviet Bloc and thus espoused the cause of the Non-Aligned Movement to which most of the recently independent third world countries of Asia and Africa joined up.
In 1962, ethnic Uighurs of Islamic faith from China’s Xinjiang province escaped into Russia to escape persecution by the Chinese which the Chinese authorities blamed the Russians for instigation unrest. China also contested the Ussuri river boundary created in colonial times, objecting that Russia had annexed Chinese territory. This led...
The One China policy states that the People Republic of China is the sole legitimate government of mainland China, Tibet, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and any other disputed territories that China may have with its neighbors.
The Korean War divided the Far East into two ideologically competing blocs – the Communist Bloc comprising of the Soviet Union, China. North Korea faced off with the Western Bloc comprising of Japan and South Korea under the American umbrella.
The Chinese Civil War was fought between the American backed Nationalist forces led by Chiang Kai Shek, and the Soviet backed Communist Party of China led by Mao Tse Tung. The war began in 1927 and, after a brief interlude, continued until 1949 when the nationalist forces were defeated and...
President Kennedy order a quarantine or blockade of Cuba rather than taking other measures because a quarantine or blockade provided the least chances of escalation of the war while other options made a nuclear war possible.
President Kennedy modified the Eisenhower administration plan to overthrow Castro in Cuba using Cuban exiles by not using Airpower because he feared that such an action would provoke the Soviets.
In 1961, the CIA trained a group of Cuban exiles to carry out a coup against Castro and landed them at Bay of Pigs to execute the operation. The plans had been compromised, and the invasion failed miserably.
After Castro deposed, the US-backed the Batista government in the Cuban revolution he still was not aligned with the Soviets. However, when Castro, as the Prime Minister of Cuba, went to the United States in 1959, he was denied a meeting with US President Eisenhower. This event and Castro’s socialistic...
For American strategists, the first domino was Laos, which, if lost to the communist rule, would result in all countries in South East Asia falling one after another.
The domino theory posited that if one country fell to communist rule, then others would follow suit like a stack of dominos that commences toppling after the first domino is toppled.
Bombing by the American forces was ineffective because the thick jungle foliage hit and run tactics of the Vietnamese forces and the use of underground tunnels, which made targeting from air difficult.
Vietnamization was a policy started by President Nixon aimed at American forces buying time and strengthening South Vietnamese forces so that they would be able to take on the Communist Forces.
The American government could not gain public support for the Vietnam War. Anti-war protests, criticism from intellectuals and doubts within the ruling party itself were factors enough for America in losing the war in America.
President Johnson came under severe criticism for exponentially increasing American troop involvement in Vietnam with over 550,000 troops by 1968 inside Vietnam, resulting in thousands of American casualties in what was perceived as an unnecessary war.
President Johnson escalated America’s involvement in the Vietnam War as containing the Soviet Union was an overriding factor. Nixon continued the escalation as America as the leader of the ‘Free World’ and champion of democracy, could not be seen to be losing to a rag tag army of Communist forces.
Nixon promised domestic peace and stability and extricated America from the Vietnam War on just and honorable terms.
The unpopularity of the Vietnam War resulted in Johnson having no public and party support forcing him to announce that he would not contest for re-election.
Diem used tortures and executions to root out communist sympathisers in South Vietnam. He persecuted the Buddhist sects to consolidate his hold and rigged the poll on the future of his rule-making him a despised ruler.
Because the US Containment strategy against Soviet expansion became the prime strategic consideration as also the belief in superior US firepower against what was considered as a weak and lightly armed adversary.
North Vietnam, supported by proxy by the Soviet Union, opposed South Vietnam supported directly by the United States led to a disastrous ten-year-long war.
The Geneva accord of 1954 stipulated the end of the First Indo-China war, with the French agreeing to withdraw from Indo-China, creating three countries of Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.
The Soviet Union wanted the Korean War to end successfully for them as it would have put the entire Korean peninsula under Communist rule.
The US had been covertly supporting French Troops in Indo China to prevent their defeat to Communist forces. When the French were defeated, America feared that the ‘Domino Effect’ would see the whole of South East Asia fall under the sway of communism and hence their involvement in SE Asia...
For speaking up publicly against the President’s Korean war policy of limiting the war to prevent a larger war with China.